MANAGERMENT FOR MANAGER

Introduction
Management theory and practice has been the subject of many books and publications and it sometimes becomes all too academic and theoretical. What about the ‘new’ manager who has progressed through the technical area and now feels ready to step into management? What frequently happens is that an organization is in a dilemma: On the one hand, they do not want to lose the services of a valued employee, but on the other hand, they cannot willy-nilly promote him to a management position.
The fact of the matter is that this person needs to acquire a new set of skills and all his technical expertise is no guarantee that he’ll make a success in the management. In fact, history has shown that many I/T, financial and community specialist people who are promoted in this fashion do not make a success in the management field.
So what has the organization done? They have lost a very good technical person and gained a poor manager.
The situation is if the technical person does not get promoted, he may leave the organization and if he does get promoted, he needs to develop a whole new set of management skills to succeed. An effort is made by AAK Management Consultants to provide maximum information to those interested people who want to learn management skills in order to succeed in their carrier as a manager.
We have made every possible effort to cover most of the topics, however, there is always room of improvement and the suggestions and recommendations to improve this manual and to make this training more effective shall be highly appreciated.



General Management
Course Contents Page No
Chapter 1
Management And Managers
1
Managerial Roles In Organizations
4

Managerial Levels And Skills
7

Management Ideas

Chapter 2
Classical View Of Management
11

Administrative View Of Management
12

Behavioral Theories Of Management
14

Understanding Organizational Culture
16

Chapter 3
Decision Making And Decision Taking
17

Rational Decision Making
18

Non Rational Decision Making
21

Group Decision Making And Creativity
23
Chapter 4
Planning And Decision Aids
26

Techniques For Allocating Resources
29
Planning: Functions and its Benefits
34

Planning Process And Goal Levels
40

Chapter 5
Management By Objective (Mbo)
46

Strategic Management
50

Levels Of Strategies And Strategy Development (Bcg) And Implementation
57

Chapter 6
Organizing
63

Job Design/Specialization And Departmentalization
66

Span Of Command, Centralization Vs De- Centralization And Line Vs Staff Authority
74

Organizational Design and organic Vs Mechanistic Vs Virtual Structure 80
Chapter 7
Leading And Leadership Motivating Self And Others
85

Maslow’s Needs Theory And Its Analysis
88

Other Need And Cognitive Theories Of Motivation
89
Expectancy, Goal Setting And Re-Enforcement Theories
91

Leadership
92

Behavioral And Situational Models Of Leadership
96

Strategic Leadership Models
98

Managing Conflict In Groups
102

Chapter 8
Controlling As A Management Function
104

Controlling Organizational Performance Through Productivity And Quality
115

Chapter 9
Office Management 119
Office Organizing 121
Office Location 129
Office Layout 130
Communication 131
Office System, Procedures and Manual 137
Office Reports 140
Financial Management Overview 148
HR Management Overview 150

Chapter 1
General Management
What is an Organization?
“An entity where two or more persons work together to achieve a goal or a common purpose is called Organization.”
There are so many organizations around us. Daily we visit and see many organizations. Hospitals, Colleges, Factories, Farms and Government offices, Mosque/Church are the example of organizations.
Every organization, regardless of size, type, or location, needs managers who have a variety of characteristics.
Managers may come from any nationality or be of either gender.
1. Who are Managers?
“A manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals.”
2. What do managers do?
No two managers’ jobs are alike. But management writers and researchers have developed some specific categorization schemes to describe what managers do. We can focus on following five categorization schemes while making mind what do managers do:
POLCA as functions:
Planning
Management function that involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those goals. And developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.

Organizing
Management function that involves the process of determining what tasks are to be done. Who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.
Leading
Management function that involves motivating subordinates, influencing individuals or teams as they work, selecting the most effective communication channels, or dealing in any way with employee behavior issues.
Controlling
Management function that involves monitoring actual performance, comparing actual to standard and taking action, if necessary.
Assurance
Quality function which demands from every manager that he/she ensure that prior management support and management processes are in place before POLC management functions are executed.


Why Study Management?
Management is important for our society, industry and government organizations:
1. Modern management ensure to create competitive advantage through People These companies use ideas such as employee satisfaction, selective recruiting, performance based high wages , reduction of status differences, sharing information, self-managed teams, and training and skill development .
2. Investing in people will create long-lasting competitive advantages that are difficult for other companies to duplicate.
3. Sound management practices can produce substantial advantages in grants, revenues, and customer , community and donor satisfaction.
4. Poorly performing organization that adopted management techniques as simple as setting expectations, coaching, and rewarding were able to substantially improve return on investment or community and donor appreciation.
5. Good management can increase customer, community satisfaction because employees tend to treat customers, community in the same way that their managers treat them. By studying management, participants will be able to recognize good management and encourage it, as well as to recognize poor management and work to get it corrected.
6. In present you may either manage or be managed. A workshop on management provides insights into the way your boss or peer behave and shall help you to be familiar with the internal working of organizations.
Operations Management is the function or field of expertise that is primarily responsible for the operation, production and delivery of an organization’s products and services.
Total quality management is a philosophy of management that is driven by customer needs and expectations and focuses on continual improvement in work processes
Knowledge management involves cultivating a learning culture where organizational members systematically gather knowledge and share it with others to achieve better performance.

Managerial Roles in Organizations
Management Roles:
A role is an organized set of behaviors that is associated with a particular office or position.
There are three types of roles which a manager usually does in any organization.
Interpersonal roles
are roles that involve people (subordinates and persons outside the organization) and other duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature. Interpersonal roles grow directly out of the authority of a manger’s position. The three interpersonal roles are.
1. Figurehead :Symbolic head: obliged to perform a number of routine duties of a legal or social nature. Greeting visitors: signing legal documents
2. Leader: Responsible for the motivation of subordinates: responsible for staffing, training, and associated duties. Performing virtually all activities that involve subordinates
3. Interpersonal liaison: Maintains self-developed network of outside contacts and informers who provide favors and information. Acknowledging mail: doing external board work: performing other activities that involve outsiders
Informational roles
involve receiving, collecting, and disseminating information. The three informational roles are
4. Monitor: Seeks and receives wide variety of internal and external information to develop thorough understanding of organization and environment. Reading periodicals and reports: maintaining personal contacts.
5. Disseminator: Transmits information received from outsiders or from subordinates to members of the organization holding informational meetings: making phone calls to relay information.
6. Informational spokesperson: Transmits information to outsiders on organization’s plans, policies, actions, results, holding board meetings: giving information to the media.
Decisional roles
revolved around making choices. The four decisional roles include entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator.
7. Entrepreneur: Searches organization and its environment for opportunities and initiates “improvement projects” to bring about changes Organizing strategy and review sessions to develop new programs
8. Disturbance handler: Responsible for corrective action when organization faces important, unexpected Disturbances Organizing strategy and review sessions that involve disturbances and crises
9. Decisional resource allocator: Responsible for the allocation of organizational resources of all kinds – making or approving all significant organizational decisions Scheduling: requesting authorization: performing any activity that involves budgeting and the programming of subordinates’ work
10. Negotiator: Responsible for representing the organization at major negotiations Participating in union contract negotiations

Managerial Levels and Skills
Level of Managers in an Organization:
First-line managers (or first-line supervisors) are those managers having the least authority and are at the lowest level in the hierarchy of the organization. They manage the work of non-managerial individuals who are involved with the programme, production or creation of the organization’s products or services. They’re often called supervisors , line managers, office managers, or even foremen. They are directly responsible for the work of operating (non-managerial) employees.
Factors changing the jobs of first-line managers include emphasis upon worker participation and teamwork and the use of computers to regulate many activities formerly regulated by first-line managers.
Middle-level managers are those managers beneath the top-levels of the hierarchy and directly supervise other managers below them. It includes all levels of management between the first-line level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, Programme managers, or division or regional manager.
Middle managers are mainly responsible for implementing overall organizational plans so that organizational goals are achieved as expected.
1. They plan, allocate resources to meet objectives and coordinate and link groups, departments, and divisions within a company.
2. They monitor and manage the performance of the subunits and individual managers who report to them.
3. implement changes or strategies generated by top managers.
The modern trend of adding layers of middle management is reversing. Reducing the number of levels of managers results in greater power and responsibility
Top managers are those managers at the very top levels of the hierarchy who have the most authority and who are ultimately responsible for the entire organization. They are those who are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director (MD), chief operating officer (COO), chief executive officer (CEO) , or chairman of the board.
a) They oversee overall planning for the organization, work with middle managers in implementing and planning, and maintain overall control over the progress of the organization.
b) In those public corporation that sell their stock to the public, top managers’ report to the board of directors whose function is to represent the interests of the stockholders.
c) They are responsible for the overall direction of the organization
d) They develop in employees the attitudes of commitment and ownership in the company’s performance and create a positive organizational culture through language and action.
The board of directors appoints the CEO (who sometimes also serves as the Chairman or Chairwoman of the Board). The CEO then appoints the other top managers subject to board approval.
Difference in Functions of Management within the Hierarchy:
A number of aspects of the management process differ within the hierarchy. The importance of each of the functions of management differs from one managerial level to another.
a. Planning tends to be more important for top-level managers.
b. Organizing tends to be more important for both top and middle-level managers.
c. Leading is more important for first-line managers.
d. Controlling is important among all levels of the hierarchy.
Management Skills, Knowledge and Performance
Managers need a knowledge base. This knowledge base provides a context for the manager’s activities. It can include information about an industry/ social sector and its technology / project , organization policies and practices, organization goals and plans, organization culture, the personalities of key organization members, and important donor/suppliers and beneficiaries/customers.
1. Technical skills: Technical skills include knowledge of and proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as engineering, computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organization’s work.
2. Human skills are associated with a manager’s ability to work well with others both as a member of a group and as a leader who gets things done through others. Because a manager deals directly with people, this skill is crucial! Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their people. They know how to communicate motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust. These skills are equally important at all levels of management.
3. Conceptual skills are skills related to the ability to visualize the organization as a whole, discern interrelationships among organizational parts, and understand how the organization fit into the wider context of the industry, community, and world. Conceptual skills are the skills managers must have to think and to conceptualize about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills, managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationships among various subunits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment.







CHAPTER 2
Classical View of Management (Scientific and Bureaucratic)
Classical Viewpoint Is Divided Into Three Parts:
1. Scientific Management
2. Bureaucratic Management
3. Administrative Management.

1. Scientific management:
Scientific management is defined as the use of the scientific method to define the “one best way” for a job to be done.
Taylor’s Four Principles of Scientific Management:
1. Study each part of the task scientifically, and develop a best method to perform it.
2. Carefully select workers and train them to perform a task using the scientifically developed method.
3. Cooperate fully with workers to ensure they use the proper method.
4. Divide work and responsibility so management is responsible for planning work methods using scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing the work accordingly.
2. Bureaucratic management:
Characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy
The major characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy include:
a. Specialization of a labor
b. Formalization of rules and procedures
c. Impersonality in application of rules and sanctions
d. Formalization of lines of authority into a hierarchical structure
e. Formalization of the career advancement process to be based on merit
Administrative View of Management
Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management
1. Division of work: Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient.
2. Authority: Managers must be able to give order. Authority gives them this right. Along with authority, however, goes responsibility.
3. Discipline: Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization.
4. Unity of Command: An employee should receive orders from one superior only.
5. Unity of direction: The organization should have a single plan of action to guide managers and workers.
6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole.
7. Remuneration: Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.
8. Centralization: This term refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making.
9. Scalar Chain: The line term refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved I decision making.
10. Order: People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.
11. Equity: Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel: Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies.
13. Initiative: Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort.
14. Esprit de corps: Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization.

Behavioral Theories of Management
BEHAVIORAL VIEWPOINT:
Organizational behavior (OB) research has contributed much of what we know about behavioral views of management, human resources management, motivation, leadership, trust, teamwork, and conflict management.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) developed a theory of motivation that was based on three assumptions about human nature.
a. Human beings have needs that are never completely satisfied.
b. Human behavior is aimed at satisfying the needs that are yet unsatisfied at a given point in time.
c. Needs fit into a somewhat predictable hierarchy ranging from basic, lower-level needs to higher-level needs:
1) Physiological (lowest)
2) Safety
3) Belongingness or social
4) Esteem
5) Self-actualization (highest and NOT achieved by everyone
Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) developed the Theory X and Theory Y dichotomy about the assumptions managers make about workers and how these assumptions affect behavior.
a. Theory X managers tend to assume that workers are lazy, need to be coerced, have little ambition, and are focused on security needs. These managers then treat their subordinates as if these assumptions were true.
b. Theory Y managers tend to assume that workers do not inherently dislike work, are capable of self-control, have the capacity to be creative and innovative, and generally have higher-level needs that are often not met on the job. These managers then treat their subordinates as if these assumptions were true.
c. Workers, like all of us, tend to work up or down to expectations.

Understanding Organizational Culture
THE ORGANIZATION’S CULTURE:
Just as individuals have a personality, so, too, do organizations. We refer to an organization’s personality as its culture.
Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning and beliefs within an organization that determines, in large degree, how employees act. This definition implies several things.
Culture is a perception that exists in the organization, not in the individual.
Organizational culture is a descriptive term. It describes rather than evaluates.
Seven dimensions of an organization’s culture have been proposed:
i. Innovation and risk taking (the degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and take risks)
ii. Attention to detail (the degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to detail)
iii. Outcome orientation (the degree to which managers focus on results or outcomes rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve those outcomes)
iv. People orientation (the degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect on people within the organization)
v. Team orientation (the degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals)
vi. Aggressiveness (the degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing and cooperative)
vii. Stability (the degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to growth

Chapter 3
Decision Making and Decision Taking

Decision making is part of all four managerial functions. In performing these functions, managers are often called decision makers.
The decision-making process:
A decision is a choice made from two or more alternatives. The decision-making process is defined as a set of different steps that begins with identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to those criteria; moves to developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem; implements the alternative; and concludes with evaluating the decision’s effectiveness. Models of decision making can be either descriptive or normative.
1. Descriptive decision-making models attempt to prescribe how managers actually do make decisions.
2. Normative decision-making models attempt to prescribe how managers should process.
a. Following the prescription should lead to a more effective decision-making process.
b. The models usually incorporate four steps.
Steps in an effective decision-making process
A. To identify the organizational problem,
B. The generation of alternative solutions
C. The choice of an alternative
D. Finally, the implementing and monitoring the chosen solution
DECISION MAKING SITUATION:
Decision-making situations differ according to the types of problems that must be handled.
Certainty is a situation in which a manager can make accurate decisions because the outcome of every alternative is known. However, this isn’t characteristic of most managerial decisions.
Uncertainty is a condition in which the decision maker chooses a course of action without complete knowledge of the consequences that will follow implementation.
Risk is the possibility that a chosen action could lead to losses rather than the intended results.
a. Uncertainty is seen as the reason why situation is risky.
b. A rapidly changing environment is a major cause of uncertainty.

Rational Decision Making
Managers as decision makers:
The nature of managerial decision making:
A. Decision making is the process through which managers identify organizational problems and attempt to resolve them. Decision makers face three types of problems.
1. A crisis problem is a serious difficulty requiring immediate action.
2. A non-crisis problem is an issue that requires resolution, but does not simultaneously have the importance and immediacy characteristics of crises.
MODELS OF DECISION MAKING:
Rational Model:
According to the rational model of decision making, managers engage in completely rational decision processes, ultimately make optimal decisions, and possess and understand all information relevant to their decisions at the time they make them (including all possible alternatives and all potential outcomes and ramifications).
Rational Model Step by Step:
Defining Problem by gathering relevant information:
Step 1 is identifying a problem. A problem is defined as a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs. Some cautions about problem identification include the following:
1. Make sure it’s a problem and not just a symptom of a problem.
2. Problem identification is subjective.
3. Before a problem can be determined, a manager must be aware of any discrepancies.
4. Discrepancies can be found by comparing current results with some standard.
5. Pressure must be exerted on the manager to correct the discrepancy.
6. Managers aren’t likely to characterize some discrepancy as a problem if they receive that they don’t have the authority, money, information, or other resources needed to act on it.
Step 2 is identifying the decision criteria. Decision criteria are criteria that define what is relevant and important in making a decision.
Step 3 is allocating weights to the criteria. The criteria identified in Step 2 of the decision-making process aren’t all equally important, so the decision maker must weight the items in order to give them correct priority in the decision.
Step 4 involves developing alternatives. The decision maker now needs to identify viable alternatives for resolving the problem.
Step 5 is analyzing alternatives. Each of the alternatives must now be critically analyzed. Each alternative is evaluated by appraising it against the criteria.
Step 6 involves selecting an alternative. The act of selecting the best alternative from among those identified and assessed is critical. If criteria weights have been used, the decision maker simply selects the alternative with the highest score from Step 5.
Step 7 is choosing a course of action and implementing the alternative. The chosen alternative must be implemented. Implementation is conveying a decision to those affected by it and getting their commitment to it.
Step 8 involves evaluating the decision effectiveness. This last step in the decision-making process assesses the result of the decision to see whether or not the problem has been resolved.

Non Rational Decision Making
NON RATIONAL MODEL:
The non-rational models of managerial decision making suggest that information-gathering and processing limitations make it difficult for managers to make optimal decisions.
1) The satisficing model, that managers seek alternatives only until they find one that looks satisfactory, rather than seeking the optimal decision.
Bounded rationality means that the ability of managers to be perfectly rational in making decisions is limited by such factors as cognitive capacity and time constraints. Actual decision making is not perfectly rational because of
1. Inadequate information
2. Time a cost factors
3. The decision maker’s own misperceptions or prejudices
4. Limited human memory
5. Limited human data-processing abilities.
Satisficing can be appropriate when the cost of delaying a decision or searching for a better alternative outweighs the likely payoff from such a course.
2) The incremental model holds that managers make the smallest response possible that will reduce the problem to at least a tolerable level.
a) Managers can make decisions without processing a great deal of information.
b) Incremental strategies are usually more effective in the short run than in the long run.
3) The garbage-can model of decision making holds that managers behave in virtually a random pattern in making non-programmed decisions.
The garbage-can approach is often used in the absence of solid strategic management and can lead to severe problems.
GROUP DECISION MAKING:
Decisions on all levels of organization are frequently made by groups. Group decision making has several advantages and disadvantages over individual decision making.
Advantages
a) Groups bring more diverse information and knowledge to bear on the question under consideration.
b) An increased number of alternatives can be developed.
c) Greater understanding and acceptance of the final decision are likely.
d) Members develop knowledge and skill for future use.
Disadvantages
a) Group decision making is more time consuming.
b) Disagreements may delay decisions and cause hard feelings.
c) The discussion may be dominated by one or a few group members.
d) Groupthink is the tendency in cohesive groups to seek agreement about an issue at the expense of realistically appraising the situation.

Group Decision Making and Creativity
The Creativity Factor In Decision Making
Innovation is important to organizational success in the marketplace.
A. Creativity versus Innovation.
There is a difference between creativity and innovation.
1. Creativity is the ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual associations between ideas.
2. Innovation is the process of taking a creative idea and turning it into a useful product, service, or method of operation.
Creativity
Creativity is the cognitive process of developing an idea, concept, commodity, or discovery that is viewed as novel by its creator or a target audience.
Creativity requires both convergent and divergent thinking.
1. Convergent thinking is the effort to solve problems by beginning with a problem and attempting to move logically to a solution.
2. Divergent thinking is the effort to solve problems by generating new ways of viewing a problem and seeking novel alternatives.
Creativity has three necessary ingredients.
1. Domain-relevant skills are those associated with expertise in the relevant field.
2. Creativity-relevant skills include a cognitive style, or method, of thinking that is oriented to exploring new directions, knowledge of approaches that can be used for generating novel ideas, and a work style that is conducive to developing creative ideas.
3. Task motivation is interest in the task for its own sake, rather than because of some external reward possibility, such as more
An individual’s creative process has several stages.
1. Preparation involves the individual’s immersion in every aspect of a problem through
a) Gathering initial information
b) Generating alternatives
c) Seeking and analyzing further data relating to the problem.
2. Incubation involves a rest from consciously focusing on the problem as subconscious mental activities and divergent thinking take over.
3. Illumination is often experienced as a breakthrough as a new level of insight is achieved.
4. Verification involves testing the ideas to determine the validity of the insight.
Group creativity can be enhanced by means of a number of techniques. Two of which are
1. Brainstorming is a means of enhancing creativity that encourages group members to generate as many novel ideas as possible on a given topic without evaluating them.
a. The ground rules used in brainstorming were described earlier in this chapter.
b. Computer assisted brainstorming have been found to give superior results.
2. The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) is a means of enhancing creativity and decision making that integrates both individual work and group interaction within certain ground rules.
a. NGT was developed to foster creativity and to overcome the tendency to criticize ideas when they are presented
b. The ground rules of NGT are:
1) Individuals independently prepare a list of their ideas on a problem.
2) Group members present their ideas one at a time in turn, and ideas are listed for all to see.
3) Members discuss the ideas to clarify and evaluate them.
4) Individuals vote silently using a rating procedure.


Chapter 4
Planning and Decision Aids

1. Techniques For Assessing The Environment
Several techniques have been developed to assist managers in assessing the organization’s environment.
Environmental scanning. Environmental scanning is the screening of large amounts of information to anticipate and interpret changes in the environment. It’s used by both large and small organizations, and research has shown that companies with advanced environmental scanning systems increased their profits and revenue growth.
SWOT analysis is an analysis of an organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. It brings together the internal and external environmental analyses in order to identify a strategic niche the organization might exploit.
Competitor intelligence is an environmental scanning activity that seeks to identify who competitors are, what they are doing, and how their actions will affect the organization. Another type of environmental scanning is global scanning in which managers assess the changes and trends in the global environment.
Environmental scanning provides the foundation for developing forecasts, which are predictions of outcomes.
Forecasting
Forecasting is the process of predicting changing conditions and future events that may significantly affect the business of an organization.
1. Forecasting is important to both planning and decision making.
2. Forecasting is used in a variety of areas such as: production planning, budgeting, strategic planning, sales analysis, inventory control, marketing planning, logistics planning, and purchasing among others. It’s important to look at forecasting effectiveness. Forecasting techniques are most accurate when the environment is not rapidly changing. Some suggestions for improving forecasting effectiveness are as follows:
1) Use simple forecasting techniques.
2) Compare every forecast with “no change.”
3) Don’t rely on a single forecasting method.
4) Don’t assume that you can accurately identify turning points in a trend.
5) Shorten the length of the forecasts.
6) Forecasting is a managerial skill and can be practiced and improved.
Methods Of Forecasting
A. Quantitative forecasting relies on numerical data and mathematical model to predict future conditions.
B. Technological, or Qualitative, Forecasting is aimed primarily at predicting long-term trends in technology and other important aspects of the environment The focus is upon longer-term issues that are less amenable to numerical analysis as quantitative approaches.
C. Judgmental Forecasting relies mainly on individual judgments or committee agreements regarding future conditions. Judgmental forecasting methods are highly susceptible to bias.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is the search for the best practices among competitors or no competitors that lead to their superior performance.
The benchmarking process typically follows four steps.
a) A benchmarking planning team is formed. The team’s initial task is to identify what is to be benchmarked, identify comparative organizations, and determine data collection methods.
b) The team collects internal and external data.
c) The data is analyzed to identify performance gaps and to determine the cause of the difference.
d) An action plan is prepared and implemented.

Techniques For Allocating Resources.
Resources are the assets of the organization and include financial, physical, human, intangible, and structural.
Budgeting: A budget is a numerical plan for allocating resources to specific activities. Budgets are popular because they’re applicable to a wide variety of organizations and units within an organization.
There are four different types of budgets.
a) A revenue budget is a budget that projects future sales.
b) An expense budget is a budget that lists the primary activities undertaken by a unit and allocates a dollar amount to each.
c) A profit budget is a budget used by separate units of an organization that combines revenues and expense budgets to determine the unit’s profit contribution.
d) A cash budget is a budget that forecasts how much cash an organization will have on hand and how much it will need to meet expenses.
These budgets are based on the assumption of a single specified volume—fixed budgets. However, volume can’t be predicted exactly. Therefore, a variable budget is a budget that takes into account the costs that vary with volume.
Scheduling
Scheduling involves a list of necessary activities, their order of completion, which is to do each, and time needed to complete them. Some useful scheduling tools include the following.
The Gantt chart, named after Henry Gantt, is a scheduling chart that visually shows actual and planned output over a period of time.
A Gantt chart is a specialized bar chart that shows the current progress on each major project activity relative to necessary completion dates.
1. A project is broken down into separate main activities listed on the left side of the chart.
2. The time frame is listed at the top or the bottom of the chart.
3. The duration and scheduling of activities is shown by a bar.
4. Gantt charts do not show interrelationships among activities.
5. Software packages for creating and using Gantt charts (and many other decision tools) on computer are becoming widely available.
PERT, or Program Evaluation and Review Technique
PERT is a network planning method for managing and controlling large one-time projects. It is a technique for scheduling complicated projects comprising many activities, some of which are interdependent.
A PERT network is a flowchart like diagram that depicts the sequence of activities needed to complete a project and the time or costs associated with each activity.
1. All of the major activities in the project are specified.
2. The sequences of these activities are determined
3. A network diagram a graphic depiction of the interrelationships among activities, is constructed.
a. An activity is a work component to be accomplished, and is represented by an arrow on the network diagram.
b. An event (or node) represents a single point in time that is the beginning or the ending of an activity.
4. Three time estimates for each activity are determined and an expected time is calculated for each activity.
5. The critical path is the path of activities and events in the network that will take the longest time to complete
a. Delays on any activities on the critical path mean that the project will be delayed.
b. Slack is the degree of latitude about when various activities can be started without endangering the completion date of the entire project.
6. After the project has begun, actual times for completion of each activity are collected and recorded on the PERT network so that any rescheduling and adjustments can be made as quickly as possible.
Please remember in PERT charts the followings:
1) Events are end points that represent the completion of major activities in a PERT network.
2) Activities, which are the time or resources required to progress from one event to another in a PERT network.
3) Slack time is the amount of time an individual activity can be delayed without delaying the whole project.
4) Critical path is the longest or most time-consuming sequence of events or activities in a PERT network.
Breakeven Analysis
Breakeven analysis is a technique for identifying the point at which total revenue is just sufficient to cover total costs.
Linear Programming
Linear programming is a mathematical technique that can be used to solve resource allocation problems. Linear programming (LP) is a quantitative tools for planning how to allocate limited or scarce resources so that a single criterion or goal (often profits) is optimized.
1. It is the most widely used quantitative planning tools in business.
2. There are optimal conditions for using linear programming.
a. A single objective must be achieved.
b. Attainable constraints exist.
c. Variables are linearly related to the objective, i.e., and increase (or decrease) in the variable leads to a proportional increase (or decrease) in the objective.
CONTEMPORARY PLANNING TECHNIQUES.
Two planning techniques that are appropriate for planning in an environment that’s both dynamic and complex are project management and scenario planning.
Project Management
A project is a one-time-only set of activities that has a definite beginning and ending point in time. Project management is the task of getting a project’s activities done on time, within budget, and according to specifications.
Project Management Process.
There are seven steps in the project planning process.
a. Define objectives.
b. Identify activities and resources.
c. Establish sequences.
d. Estimate time for activities.
e. Determine project completion date.
f. Compare with objectives.
g. Determine additional human resource requirements.
The role of the project manager.
a. The only real influence project managers have is their communication skills and their power of persuasion.
b. Team members seldom work on just one project; they’re usually assigned to two or three at any given time.
2.2 Scenario planning
A scenario is a consistent view of what the future is likely to be.
1. Developing scenarios also can be described as contingency planning.
2. The intent of scenario planning is not to try to predict the future but to reduce uncertainty by playing out potential situations under different specified conditions.
3. Scenario planning is difficult to use when forecasting random events
3. OTHER PLANNING TECHNIQUES:
3.1 Queuing or waiting-line models are mathematical models that describe the operating characteristics of queuing situations.
1. Queuing situations can be any combination of single-server or multiple-server queues.
a. Single-server queues involved service provided at a single point.
b. Multiple-server queues occur when a number of stations draw from a single line.
2. Queuing models allow managers to vary the parameters of a situation to determine the probable effects.
3.2 Simulation Models
Simulation is a mathematical imitation of reality. It is used when the situation is too complex for linear programming or queuing theory.
3.3 Decision Trees
Trees are graphic models displaying structures of a sequence of alternative course of action and usually showing payoffs associated with various paths and probabilities associated with potential future conditions.

Planning: Functions and its Benefits
WHAT IS PLANNING?
Planning involves defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving these goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate organizational work. The term planning as used in this chapter refers to formal planning. The quality of the planning process and appropriate implementation probably contribute more to high performance than does the extent of planning.
WHY DO MANAGERS PLAN?
Purposes of Planning.
Planning is important and serves many significant purposes.
1. Planning gives direction to the organization.
2. Planning reduces the impact of change.
3. Planning establishes a coordinated effort.
4. Planning reduces uncertainty.
5. Planning reduces overlapping and wasteful activities.
6. Planning establishes objectives or standards that are used in controlling.
HOW DO MANAGERS PLAN?
Planning is often called the primary management function because it establishes he basis for all other functions. Planning involves two important elements: goals and plans.
The Role of Goals and Plans in Planning
1. Goals—desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations.
2. Goals are objectives—the two terms are used interchangeably.
3. Types of goals.
a. Financial performance versus strategic goals
b. Stated versus Real.
1) Stated goals are official statements of what an organization says, and what it wants its various stakeholders to believe, its goals are.
2) Real goals are those that an organization actually purses.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Define planning.
Planning involves defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate organizational work. It’s concerned with both ends (what’s to be done) and means (how it’s to be done).
2. What purposes does planning serve?
Planning gives direction, reduces the impact of change, establishes coordinated effort, reduces uncertainty, minimizes waste and redundancy, and sets the standards used in controlling.
3. What is the relationship between planning and organizational performance?
Formal planning is associated with higher profits, higher return on assets, and other positive financial results. The quality of the planning process and the appropriate implementation of the plans probably contribute more to high performance than does the extent of planning.
4. Differentiate between goals and plans.
Goals are desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations. Plans are documents that outline how goals are going to be met and that typically describe resource allocations, schedules, and other necessary actions to accomplish the goals.


5. What are the different types of goals?
Organizations may utilize financial and/or strategic goals, stated and/or real goals.
6. Describe each of the different types of plans.
Strategic plans apply to the entire organization, establish the organization’s overall goals, and seek to position the organization in terms of its environment. Operational plans specify the details of how the overall goals are to be achieved. Long-term plans are plans with a time frame beyond three years. Short-term plans cover one year or less. Specific plans are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation. Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general guidelines.
Single-use plans are one-time plans specifically designed to meet the needs of a unique situation. Standing plans are ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities performed repeatedly and include policies, rules, and procedures.
THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS
The use of goals has several benefits.
1. Performance can be improved.
2. Expectations can be improved.
3. The Controlling function can be facilitated so that progress can be assessed and corrective action taken.
4. Meeting goals can increase motivation.
The three levels of goals within an organization form a hierarchy of goals, with lower-level goals forming a mean-end chain with the next level of goals.
1. Strategic goals are broadly defined targets or future end results set by top management.
2. Tactical goals are the targets or future end results usually set by middle management for specific departments or units.
3. Operational goals are those targets or future end results set by lower management that address specific, measurable outcomes required from the lower levels.
LINKAGE OF GOALS AND PLANS.
Goal and plans are closely related in that plans specify the means to achieving the goals.
A. Plans, like goals, enter into a hierarchy of levels and priority.
1. Strategic plans are detailed action steps mapped out to reach strategic goals.
a. Strategic plans are organizational wide and are developed by top management.
b. The time horizon tends to be long –3 to 5 years or more.
2. Tactical plans are the means charted to support implementation of the strategic plan and achievement of tactical goals.
a. Tactical plans tend to be more specific and concrete than strategic plans.
b. Tactical plans are important to the success of strategic plans.
c. The time horizon tends to be intermediate in range –1 to 3 years.
3. Operational plans are the means devised to support implementation of tactical plans and achievement of operational goals.
a. Operational plans spell out specifically what must be accomplished to achieve operational goals.
b. The time horizon is relatively short-tem—usually less than 1 year as a maximum.
Plans can be categorized according to the extent to which they will be used on a recurring basis.
1. Single-use plans are plans aimed at achieving a specific goal that, once reached, will most likely not recur in the future.
a. A program is a comprehensive plan that coordinates a complex set of activities related to a major non-recurring goal.
b. A project is a plan that coordinates a set of limited-scope activities that do not need to be divided into several major projects in order to reach a major non-recurring goal. Programs are broader than projects.
2. Standing plans are plans that provide ongoing guidance for performing recurring activities.
a. A policy is a general guide that specifies the broad parameters within which organization members are expected to operate in pursuit of organizational goals.
b. A procedure is a prescribed series of related steps to be taken under certain recurring circumstances.
1) Procedures are detained and inflexible; policies are general.
2) Well established and formalized procedures are often called standard operating procedures (SOPs).
C. Different levels of goals and plans are related to different time horizons.
Strategic plans typically involve time periods of 5 years or more, but the time frame is dependent upon the stability of the industry in question.
1. Tactical goals and plans typically involve time periods of 1 to 5 years.
2. Operational goals and plans can be for as short a period as 1 week or as long as 1 year.
D. The planning process can be used to promote innovation in organizations.
1. The organizational mission statement can be a primary means of encouraging innovation.
2. The goals component can translate the mission in a way supporting innovation. The plans component can provide actual plans for achieving innovative outcomes.

Planning Process and Goal Levels
THE OVERALL PLANNING PROCESS
Planning is a two-part function—setting goals and determining how to try to achieve the goals.
1. A goal (often used interchangeably with “objective”) is a future target or end result that an organization wishes to achieve.
2. A plan is the means devised for attempting to reach a goal.
An organization’s mission is the organization’s purpose or fundamental reason for existence.
1. A mission statement is a broad declaration of the basic, unique purpose and scope of operations that distinguishes the organization from others of this type.
2. A mission statement serves a variety of purposes.
a) For managers, a mission statement can be a benchmark against which to evaluate success.
b) For employees, mission statements define a common purpose, nurture organizational loyalty, and help foster a sense of community among members.
c) For external groups, mission statements help provide unique insights into an organization’s values and future directions.
3. The mission statement typically defines the organization in terms of the important attributes of the organization. Answers to many of these questions are answered using information and processes described in the two previous chapters in the text.
a. Customers: Who are the organization’s customers?
b. Products or services: What are the organization’s major products or services?
c. Location: Where does the organization compete?
d. Technology: What is the firms’ basic technology?
e. Philosophy: What are the basic beliefs, values, aspirations, and philosophical priorities of the organization?
f. Self-concept: What are the organization’s major strengths and competitive advantages?
g. Concern for public image: what are the organization’s public responsibilities and what image is desired?
h. Concern for employees: What is the organization’s attitude toward its employees?
Types of Plans.
Plans can be described by their breadth, time frame, specificity, and frequency of use. a. Breadth: strategic versus operational plans. Strategic plans are those that are organization wide, establish overall objectives, and position an organization in terms of its environment. Operational plans are plans that specify details on how overall objectives are to be achieved.
b. Time frame: short-term versus long-term plans. Short-term plans are plans that cover one year or less. Long-term plans are those that extend beyond three years.
c. Specificity: specific versus directional plans. Specific plans are those that are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation. Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general guidelines.
THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS
The use of goals has several benefits.
1. Performance can be improved.
2. Expectations can be improved.
3. The Controlling function can be facilitated so that progress can be assessed and corrective action taken.
4. Meeting goals can increase motivation.
The three levels of goals within an organization form a hierarchy of goals, with lower level goals forming a mean-end chain with the next level of goals.
1. Strategic goals are broadly defined targets or future end results set by top management.
2. Tactical goals are the targets or future end results usually set by middle management for specific departments or units.
3. Operational goals are those targets or future end results set by lower management that address specific, measurable outcomes required from the lower levels.
HOW GOALS FACILITATE PERFORMANCE
The content of goals should meet five criteria.
1. Challenging goals usually lead to higher performance from individuals and groups.
2. Attainable goals, not impossible demands, are more likely to improve performance.
3. Specific and measurable goals are needed so that it is clear when they have been achieved.
4. Time-limited goals give them meaning.
5. Relevant goals enable employees to see the purpose of the goals and to devise ways of meeting them.
6. Measurable means the performance and targets can be measured after an interval of time.
GOAL COMMITMENT is one’s attachment to, or determination to reach, a goal. Without commitment goals have little impact on performance. Managers can help foster commitments in a number of ways.
1. Supervisory authority should serve to motivate employees to meet their goals.
2. Peer and group pressure may serve as motivation.
3. Expectations of success can be improved by managerial coaching and instruction.
4. Incentives are offered during the goal-setting process; rewards occur upon goal achievement.
5. Participation in the goal setting process may be effective in engendering goals commitment. Work behavior may be affected by four factors influenced by goals content and goal commitment.
1. Goals provide Direction by channeling attention and action toward activities related to those goals, rather than to other activities.
2. Goals to which we are committed boost effort by mobilizing energy.
3. Persistence involves maintaining direction and effort on behalf of a goal until it is reached.
4. Goal setting leads to planning if the goals are appropriately challenging. The impact of goals on performance of any specific job can be influenced by a number of other process components.
1. Job knowledge and ability are likely to affect an individual’ work behavior and prospects for reaching goals.
2. The complexity of the task may affect the degree to which goal-directed work behaviors influence job performance.
3. Situation constraints include such things as having the proper tools, materials, and equipment.
4. Knowledge of results or feedback about progress enables individuals to gauge their progress toward goal attainment.
Strategic plans typically involve time periods of 5 years or more, but the time frame is dependent upon the stability of the industry in question.
The planning process can be used to promote innovation in organizations.
a) The organizational mission statement can be a primary means of encouraging innovation.
b) The goals component can translate the mission in a way supporting innovation.
c) The plans component can provide actual plans for achieving innovative outcomes.
OBSTACLES TO PLANNING exist, but may be countered by organizations.
1. Obstacles to planning threaten the ability of organizations to develop effective plans.
a. Plans in a rapidly changing environment require frequent revisions. Manager may resist formalized planning if they believe planning is unnecessary. The pressure of day-to-day responsibilities may keep managers from planning. Managers may be poorly prepared.
Staff specialists may come to dominate the planning process
2. Organizations can take steps to reduce the obstacles to planning.
a) Top-level managers may demonstrate their support of the planning process.
b) A planning staff is a small group of individuals who assist top-level managers in developing the various components of the planning process. This staff should focus on helping rather than taking over the planning process.
c) Contingency planning is the development of alternative plans for use in the event that environmental conditions evolve differently than anticipated, rendering original plans unwise or unfeasible.

Chapter 5
Management by Objective (MBO)
TIME SPAN OF GOALS AND PLANS
1. Strategic goals and plans generally involve time periods of 3-5 years.
2. Tactical goals and plans typically involve time periods of 1 to 3 years.
3. Operational goals and plans can be for as short a period as 1 week or as long as 1 year.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WELL-DESIGNED GOALS
a) Written in terms of outcomes
b) Measurable and quantifiable
c) Clear as to a time frame
d) Challenging but attainable
e) Written down
f) Communicated to all organizational members
STEPS IN GOALS SETTING—FIVE STEPS
Review the organization’s mission
1. Goals should reflect what the mission statement says.
2. Evaluate available resources.
3. Determine individually, or with input from others, the goals.
4. Write down the goals and communicate them to all who need to know.
5. Review results and whether goals are being met.

DEVELOPING PLANS
The process of developing plans is influenced by three contingency factors and by the planning approach followed.
1. Contingency Factors in Planning.
a. Manager’s level in the organization.
Operational planning usually dominates the planning activities of lower level managers. As managers move up through the levels of the organization, their planning becomes more strategic.
b. Degree of environmental uncertainty. The greater the environmental uncertainty, the more plans should be directional and emphasis placed on the short term.
i. When uncertainty is high, plans should be specific, but flexible.
ii. Managers must be prepared to rework and amend plans, or even to abandon their plans.
c. Length of Future Commitments.
i. Commitment concept means that plans should extend far enough to meet those commitments made when the plans were developed.
ii. Planning for too long or for too short a time period is inefficient and ineffective.
APPROACHES TO ESTABLISHING GOALS
Goals can be established through a process of traditional goal setting or through management by objectives
a. Traditional goal setting is defined as the process whereby goals are set at the top of the organization and then broken down into sub goals for each level in an organization.
1) Top managers are assumed to know what’s best because they see the “big picture.”
2) These goals are also often largely no operational.
3) Specificity is achieved as each manager applies his or her own set of interpretations and biases.
4) However, what often results is that objectives lose clarity and unity as they move from top to bottom.
5) When the hierarchy of objectives is clearly defined, it forms an integrated means-end chain in which higher-level objectives are linked to lower-level objectives. These lower-level objectives serve as the means for the accomplishment of the higher-level objectives. And the goals at the lower levels (means) must be achieved in order to reach the goals at the next level (ends.)
GOAL SETTING HAS SOME POTENTIAL PITFALLS
1. Setting difficult goals increases the risk that they will not be reached.
2. High goals may increase the stress levels of organizational members.
3. Failure to meet high goals may undermine the self-confidence of organizational members.
4. No goal areas may be ignored.
5. Setting goals may encourage excessive shot-range thinking.
6. Inappropriate goals may lead to dishonesty and cheating.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
Management by objective (MBO) is a process through which specific goals are set collaboratively for the organization as a whole and every unit and individual within it; the goals then are used as a basic for planning, managing organizational activities, and assessing and rewarding contributions.
In Management by objectives (MBO) specific performance goals are jointly determined by employees and their managers, progress toward accomplishing these goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress.
1) MBO was first described by Peter Drucker and consists of four elements:
i) Goal specificity
ii) Participative decision making
iii) Explicit time period
iv) Performance feedback
2) MBO makes objectives operational through the process by which they cascade down through the organization.
Although there is considerable variation across organizations, MBO processes typically include six steps.
1. Organizational goals are developed based on organizational missions.
2. Specific goals are established for departments, subunits, and individuals.
a. In the top-down process, upper-level managers, conferring with their immediate managerial subordinates, formulate specific objectives for their areas of responsibility. These in turn enter into the formulation of objectives for the next level down, and so forth.
b. In the bottom-up process, operational goals are proposed by lower-level managers on the basis of what they think they can achieve. These in turn are developed into tactical and finally strategic plans.
3. Action plans are formulated, describing what is to be done, how, when, where, and by whom in order to achieve a particular goals.
4. Individuals are given the responsibility of reaching their objectives and that goals will ultimately be met.
5. Performance is appraised at the end of the goal-setting cycle, typically at one year intervals. Praise, recognition, and rewards should be given for effective performance.
The strengths of MBO are that it
1. Aids coordination of goals and plans.
2. Helps clarify priorities and expectations.
3. Facilitates vertical and horizontal communications.
4. Fosters employee motivation.
The weaknesses of MBO are that it
1. Tends to falter without strong, continual commitment from top management.
2. Necessitates considerable training of managers.
3. Can be misused as a punitive device.
4. May cause overemphasis of quantitative goals.
The “spirit” of MBO is tremendous. In practice however, MBO has been successful only about 20 to 25 percent of the time, primarily because of lack of support from top management and poor goal-setting and communication skills.
Strategic Management
THE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
The environmental shocks during the decades of the 1970s and 1980s forced managers to develop systematic means of analyzing the environment, assessing their organization’s strengths and weaknesses, identifying opportunities that would give the organization a competitive advantage, and incorporating these findings into their planning. The value of thinking strategically was recognized.
THE CONCEPT OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT.
Strategic management is a process through which managers formulate and implement strategies geared to optimizing goal achievement, given available environmental and internal conditions. Strategic management is that set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance of an organization. It entails all of the basic management functions—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

Purposes of strategic management
1. One reason strategic management is important is because it’s involved in many of the decisions that managers make.
2. Another reason is that studies of the effectiveness of strategic planning and management have found that, in general, companies with formal strategic management systems had higher financial returns than did companies with no such systems.
3. Strategic management has moved beyond for-profit organizations to include all types of organizations, including not-for-profit.
Strategic management is important to organizations because it
1. Helps organizations identify and develop a competitive advantage, a significant edge over the competition in dealing with competitive forces.
2. Provides a sense of direction so that organization members know where to expend their efforts.
Helps highlight the need for innovation and provides an organized approach for encouraging new ideas related to strategies.
Strategies are large-scale action plans for interacting the environment in order to achieve long-term goals. Most well-run organizations attempt to develop and follow strategies.
The strategic management process is made up of several components.
1. Strategy formulation is the part of the strategic management process that includes.
a. Identifying the mission and strategic goals.
b. Conducting competitive analysis
c. Developing specific strategies
2. Strategy implementation is the part of the strategic management process that focuses on.
a. Carrying strategic plans.
b. Maintaining control over how those plans are carried out.
A. Strategic management is that set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance of an organization. It entails all of the basic management functions because the organization’s strategies must be planned, organized, put into effect, and controlled.

THE STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT PROCESS.
The strategic management process is an eight-step process that encompasses strategic planning, implementation, and evaluation.
A. The first step is identifying the organization’s current mission, objectives, and strategies.
1. Every organization needs a mission, which defines the purpose of the organization. What is the organization’s reason for being in business?
2. It’s also important to identify the organization’s current objectives and strategies, as well.
B. Step 2 is analyzing the external environment. It’s important to analyze the environment because, to a large degree, it defines management’s strategic options.
1. A successful strategy is one that aligns well with the environment.
2. This step is complete when managers have an accurate grasp of what is taking place in the external environment and are aware of important trends that might affect the organization.
C. Step 3 The third step is identifying opportunities and threats. After analyzing the external environment, managers need to assess what opportunities to exploit and what threats to avoid.
1. Opportunities are positive external environmental factors.
2. Threats are negative external environmental factors.
D. Step 4 is analyzing the organization’s resources. In this internal analysis, managers are looking at the organization’s specific assets, skills, and work activities.
1. Managers look for core competencies, which are an organization’s major value creating skills, capabilities, and resources that determine its competitive advantage.
2. This step forces managers to realize that every organization, no matter how large or powerful, is constrained in some way by its resources and skills.
E. Step 5 is identifying strengths and weaknesses. The analysis in step 4 should lead to a clear assessment of the organization’s internal resources.
1. Strengths are those activities the firm does well or the unique resources it controls.
2. Weaknesses are those activities the firm doesn’t do well or the resources it needs but doesn’t possess.
3. One area that’s often overlooked in this step is an analysis of the organization’s culture and its strengths and weaknesses.
a. Remember that culture is the organization’s personality.
b. The strength of the culture is a result of how much employees understand and support the shared values.
c. A strong culture should make it easy for managers to convey to employees the organization’s distinctive competencies. However, the strong culture will make it more difficult to change, if needed.
d. Strategic choices will also be influenced by the culture’s tolerance of risk and innovation and how performance is rewarded.
e. The culture can also promote or hinder an organization’s strategic actions.
4. The merging of steps 3 and 5 results in a SWOT analysis, which is an analysis of an organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. It brings together the internal and external analyses in order to identify a strategic niche the organization might exploit.
5. In light of the SWOT analysis, managers need to reevaluate the organization’s current mission and objectives.
F. Step 6 is formulating strategies. Strategies need to be established for the corporate, business, and functional levels of the organization. In formulating strategies, manager hopes to give the organization a competitive advantage.
G. Step 7 is implementing strategies. The strategies must now be put into action. Strategies are only as good as their implementation.
H. Step 8 in the strategic management process is evaluating results. Managers must evaluate the results to determine how effective their strategies have been and what corrections are necessary.
THE ROLE OF COMPETITIVE ANALYSIS IN STRATEGY FORMULATION
Before an effective strategy to gain a competitive advantage can be formulated, the organization’s competitive situation needs to be carefully analyzed.
A SWOT ANALYSIS is one method for doing so. The SWOT analysis involves assessing organization strengths (S) and weaknesses (W), as well s environmental opportunities (O) and threats (T).
1. Strengths and weaknesses apply to internal characteristics.
a) A strength is an internal characteristic that has the potential of improving the organization’s competitive situation.
b) A weakness is an internal characteristic that Jeaves the organization potentially vulnerable to strategic moves by competitors.
2. Opportunities and threats are found in the external environment.
a) An opportunity is an environmental condition that offers significant prospects for improving an organization’s situation relative to competitors.
b) A threat is an environmental condition that offers significant prospects for undermining an organization’s competitive situation.

Levels of Strategies and Strategy Development and Implementation
LEVEL OF STRATEGIES
Many organizations develop strategies at three different levels. These three different and distinct levels of strategy are corporate, business, and functional:
Corporate-level strategy is developed by top-level management and the board of directors. The corporate-level strategy seeks to determine what businesses a corporation should be in or wants to be in. Two popular approaches for answering the question of what business (es) should we be in are the grand strategies framework and the corporate portfolio matrix.
1. These strategies address.
a. What business the organization will be coordinated to strengthen the organization’s competitive position.
b. How the strategies of those businesses will be coordinated to strengthen the organization’s competitive position.
c. How resources will be allocated among businesses.
2. Business-level strategy concentrates on the best means of competing within a particular business while also supporting the corporate-level strategy.
a. The distinction between corporate-level and business-level strategy applies only to organizations with separate divisions that compete indifferent industries.
b. A strategic business unit (SBU) is a distinct business, with its own set of competitors, that an be managed reasonably independently of other businesses within the organization.
3. Functional-level strategy focuses on action plans for managing a particular functional area within a business in a way that supports the business-level strategy.
a) Functional areas include operations, marketing, finance, human resources management, accounting, research and development, and engineering.
b) Functional strategies are usually developed by functional managers and are typically reviewed by business unit heads.
4. Coordinating strategies across these three levels is critical in maximizing strategic impact.
FORMULATING CORPORATE-LEVEL STRATEGY
A grand strategy (master strategy) provides the basic strategic direction at the corporate level of the organization. Four grand strategies have been identified.
1. Growth strategies are grand strategies that involve organizational expansion
along some major dimension.
a. Concentration focuses on effecting the growth of a single product or service or a small number of closely related products or services.
1) Market development is gaining a larger share of a current market or expanding into new ones.
2) Product development is improving a basic product or service or expanding into closely related products or services.
3) Horizontal integration is adding one or more business those are similar, usually by purchasing such business.
b. Vertical integration involves effecting growth through the production of inputs previously provided by suppliers or through the replacement of a customer role (Such as that of a distributor) by disposing of one’s own outputs.
1) Backward integration occurs when a business grows by becoming its own supplier
2) Forward integration occurs when organizational growth encompasses a role previously fulfilled by a customer.
Diversification entails effecting growth through the development of new areas that are clearly distinct from current businesses.
1) conglomerate diversification takes place when an organization diversifies into areas that are unrelated to its current business.
2) Concentric diversification occurs when an organization diversifies into a related, but distinct, business.
c. These growth strategies can be implemented through a number of means:
1) Internal growth occurs as the organization expands by building on its own internal resources.
2) An acquisition is the purchase of all or part of one organization by another.
3) A merger is the combining of two or more companies into one organization.
4) A joint venture occurs when two or more organizations provide resources to support a given project or product offering.
2. A stability strategy is a second type of grand strategy that involves maintaining the status quo or growing in a methodical, but slow, manner.
a. Small, privately owned businesses are most likely to adopt this strategy.
b. Some of the reasons for adopting a stability strategy are that it
1) Avoids the risks or hassles of aggressive growth.
2) Provides the opportunity to recover after a period of accelerated growth.
3) Lets the company hold on to current market share.
4) May occur through default.
3. Defensive strategies, the third class of grand strategies, are sometimes called retrenchment strategies. They tend to focus on the desire or need to reduce organizational operations usually through cost reductions, such as cutting back on non-essential expenditures and instituting hiring freezes, and/or asset reductions such as selling land, equipment, or the business itself.
a. Harvest entails minimizing investments while attempting to maximize short-run profits and cash flow, with the long-run intention of existing the market.
b. A turnaround is designed to reverse a negative trend and restore the organization to appropriate levels of profitability.
c. A divestiture involves an organization’s selling or divesting of a business or part of a business,
d. A bankruptcy is a means whereby an organization that is unable to pay its debts can seek court protection from creditors and from certain contract obligations while it attempts to regain financial stability.
e. Liquidation entails selling or dissolving an entire organization.
FORMULATING BUSINESS-LEVEL STRATEGY
A. Business-level strategies provide advice about specific strategies for various businesses.
B. Michael E. Porter has developed three business-level strategies that are generic, i.e., widely applicable to a variety of situations.
1. A cost leadership strategy involves emphasizing organizational efficiency so
that the overall costs of providing products and services are lower than those of competitors.
a. The business should have a cost advantage that is not easily or inexpensively imitated.
b. Manages should consider making those product or service innovations that are most important to customers.
2. A differentiation strategy involves attempting to develop products and services that are viewed as unique in the industry.
a. differentiation may occur in brand image, technology, customer service, features, quality, and election.
b. Costs are not as important as product or service uniqueness.
3. A focus strategy entails specializing by establishing a position of overall cost
leadership, differentiation, or both, but only within a particular portion, or segment, or an entire market.
FORMULATING FUNCTIONAL-LEVEL STRATEGY
A. Strategies at the functional level are important in supporting a business-level strategy.
B. Functional areas develop the distinctive competencies that lead to potential competitive advantages.
STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION
Strategies at the functional level are important in supporting a business-level strategy. Functional areas develop the distinctive competencies that lead to potential competitive advantages.
Strategy implementation includes the various management activities that are necessary to put the strategy in motion, institute strategic controls that monitor progress, and ultimately achieve organization goals.
A. Managers need to synchronize major factors within an organization needed to put a chosen strategy into action.
1. Technology is the knowledge, tools, equipment, and work techniques used by an organization in delivering its product or service.
2. Human resources are the individuals who are members of the organization.
3. Reward systems include bonuses, awards, or promotions provided by others, as well as rewards related to internal experiences, such as feeling of achievement and challenge.
4. Decision processes include the means of resolving questions and problems that occur in organizations.
5. Organization structure is the formal pattern of interactions and coordination designed by management to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving organizational goals.
B. Managers need to be able to monitor progress through strategic control.
1. Strategic control involves monitoring critical environmental factors that could affect the viability of strategic plans, assessing the effects of organizational strategic actions, and ensuring that strategic plans are implemented as intended.
Strategic control systems include information systems that provide feedback on the implementation and effectiveness of strategic plans

Chapter 6
Organizing
The process of ORGANIZING—the second management functions—is how an organization’s structure is created.
THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
Managers are seeking structural designs that will best support and allow employees to effectively and efficiently do their work. Organizing is the process of creating an organization’s structure.
Organization structure is the formal pattern of interactions and coordination designed by management to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving organizational goals. An organizational structure is the formal framework by which job tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated.


Organizational design is the process of developing or changing an organization’s structure. It involves decisions about six key elements: work specialization, departmentalization, and chain of command, span of control, centralization/decentralization, and formalization. We need to take a closer look at each of these structural elements.
The organization chart is a line diagram that depicts the broad outlines of an organization’s structure. While varying in detail from one organization to another, typically organization charts show the major positions or departments in the organization, the way positions are grouped together, reporting relationships for lower to higher levels, official channels for communications, and possibly the titles associated with major positions in the organization.
1. The organization chart provides a visual map of the chain of command, the unbroken line of authority that ultimately links each individual with the top organizational position thorough a managerial position at each successive layer in between.
2. Nearly all organization having more than just a few member swill had an organization chart.
Responsibility is the obligation or expectation to perform and carry out duties and achieve goals related to a position.
Authority is the right inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it, right to make decisions and carry out actions to achieve organizational goals. While part of a manager’s work may be delegated, the manager remains accountable for results.
a) Accountability is the requirement of being able to answer for significant deviations from duties or expected results.
b) The fact that managers remain accountable for delegated work may cause them to resist delegation.

1. In addition to issues of accountability, managers may resist delegation for a number of reasons.
a. Managers may fear blame is subordinates fail.
b. Managers may think they lack time to train subordinates.
c. Managers may want to hold on to their power.
d. Managers may enjoy doing the tasks subordinates could do.
e. Managers may feel threatened by subordinates.
f. Managers may not know how to delegate.
2. Subordinates may resist delegation because of fear of failure or of risk taking.
3. Failure to delegate may have serious negative consequences for a manger’s career.

Job Design/Specialization and Departmentalization
BUILDING BLOCKS OF ORGANIZING
1. JOB DESIGN
Job design is the specification of task activities, usually repeated on a regular basis, associated with each particular job. a. Task activities need to be grouped in reasonably logical ways for each job. The way the jobs are configured influences employee motivation.
Work specialization the tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs. Another term for this is division of labor.
Work specialization was seen as a way to make the most efficient use of workers’ skills because workers would be placed in jobs according to their skills and paid accordingly.
Other advantages of work specialization included improvement in employees’ skills at performing a task, more efficient employee training, and encouragement of special inventions and machinery to perform work tasks.
Work specialization was viewed as a source of unending productivity improvements. And it was—up to a certain point.

Job simplification is the process of configuring or designing jobs so that job holders have only a small number of narrow, repetitive, activities to perform. The advantage is that major production efficiencies may be gained. The disadvantages are that, if carried too far, job satisfaction may be destroyed by narrow, repetitive, boring jobs and the firm may become too inflexible to serve customers with varying needs.

TYPES OF DEPARTMENTALIZATION
Departmentalization is the clustering of individuals into units and of units into departments and larger units in order to facilitate achieving organizational goals.
1. An organization design is an overall pattern of departmentalization.
2. There are four major patterns of departmentalization.
a. The functional structure groups jobs into units based upon similarity of expertise, skills, and work activities, e.g. accounting, HR, Admin
b. The divisional structure groups jobs into units according to the similarity of products/ project/ programme or markets.
c. The hybrid structure combines aspects of both the functional and divisional forms, with some jobs grouped into departments by functions and other grouped by products/ project/ programme or markets.
d. The matrix structure superimposes a horizontal set of divisional reporting relationships onto a hierarchical functional structure.
ASSESSING STRUCTURAL ALTERNATIVES
Major advantages and disadvantages
Functional structure is a type of departmentalization in which positions are grouped according to their main functional (or specialized) area.
Advantages
a) In-depth development of expertise is encouraged.
b) Employees have clear career paths within their function.
c) Resources are used more efficiently.
d) Economies of scale may be possible because of specialized people and equipment.
e) Intradepartmental coordination is facilitated.
f) Specialized technical competencies may be developed and may constitute a competitive advantage.
Disadvantages
a) Response time on multifunctional problems may be slow due to coordination problems.
b) Major issues and conflicts between departments may have to be resolved by top management, with resultant delays.
c) Bottlenecks due to sequential tasks.
d) Over specialization may lead to a restricted view of the department’s and the organization’s needs.
e) Performance may be difficult to measure because several functions are responsible for organizational results.
f) Managers may be trained too narrowly in a single department.
The functional form of departmentalization is more appropriate under certain circumstances.
The organization is small or medium-sized.
There is a limited number of related products/ projects or services/ programme, or a relatively homogeneous set of beneficiaries, customers or clients.
The organization is large and diverse, but the environment is stable.
Divisional structure
1. Divisional structures are also called “self-contained structures” because each division contains the major functional resources it needs to pursue its own goals with little or no reliance on other divisions.
2. The three major forms of divisional structure differ according to the rationale for forming the divisions.
a. Product divisions are divisions created to concentrate on a single product or service or at least a relatively homogeneous set of products or services.
b. Geographic divisions are divisions designed to serve different geographic areas.
c. Beneficiaries/ Customer divisions are divisions set up to service particular types of clients or customers.
Advantages
a. Divisions can react quickly to changes in the environment.
b. Coordination across functions is simplified.
c. Each division can focus upon serving its customers.
d. The division’s goals can be emphasized.
e. Performance is more easily measured.
f. Managers can be trained in general management skills.
Disadvantages
a. Duplication of resources in each division often occurs.
b. In-depth expertise may be sacrificed.
c. Divisions may compete for limited resources.
d. Expertise across divisions may not be shared.
e. Innovations may be restricted to single divisions.
f. Divisional goals may take priority over overall organizational goals.

The divisional structure is likely to be used in large organizations where substantial differences exist among either project/ products or services, geographic areas, or beneficiaries/ customers served.
Hybrid structure
1. Hybrid structures are adopted by large organizations to gain the advantages of functional and divisional structures.
a. Functional departments are created to take advantage of resource utilization efficiencies, economies of scale, or in-depth expertise.
b. Divisional departments are usually created to benefit from a stronger focus on project / products, services, or markets/ community.
Advantages
a. Corporate and divisional goals can be aligned.
b. Specialized expertise and economies of scale can be achieved in major functional areas.
c. Adaptability and flexibility may be achieved in handling diverse product or service lines, geographic areas, or customers.
Disadvantages
a. Conflict may arise between departments and divisions.
b. Hybrid organizations tend to develop excessively large staffs in the corporate-level functional departments.
c. There may be a slow response to exceptional situations requiring coordination between a division and a corporate functional department.

The hybrid structure is best used under particular conditions.
The organization faces environmental uncertainty best met by a divisional structure.
The organization requires functional expertise and/or efficiency.
The organization has sufficient resources to justify the structure.

A matrix structure
An organization with a matrix structure has a functional and a divisional structure at the same time.
Employees who work in a matrix organization report to two “bosses,” thus, the unity-of-command principle are violated.
Organizations that adopt a matrix structure usually go through several identifiable structural stages.
Stage 1 is a traditional structure, usually a functional structure, which follows the unity-of-command principle.
Stage 2 is a temporary overlay in which managerial integrator positions are created to handle issues of finite duration that involves coordinating across functional departments.
Stage 3 is a permanent overlay in which the managerial integrator positions become permanent.
Stage 4 is a mature matrix, in which matrix bosses have equal power.
Advantages
a. Decision making can be decentralized.
b. Horizontal coordination is strengthened.
c. Environmental monitoring is improved.
d. Responses to environmental changes are quickly made.
e. Functional specialists can be added to or resigned to projects as needed.
f. Support systems can be allocated to projects as needed.

Disadvantages
a. Administrative costs are increased.
b. Lines of authority and responsibility may not be clear to individual employees.
c. Possibilities of conflict are increased.
d. Individuals can become preoccupied wit internal relations at the expense of clients and project goals.
e. All decisions may become group decisions, leading to gross inefficiency.
f. Reactions to change may be slowed if interpersonal skills are lacking or top management fights for control.

Matrix designs are usually appropriate when the following three conditions are met:
a. The is considerable pressure from the environment that necessitates a simultaneous and strong focus on both functional and divisional dimensions.
b. The demands placed on the organization are changing and unpredictable, making it important to have a large capacity for processing information and coordinating activities quickly.
c. There is pressure for shared resources.

8. Research indicates some of the factors that may be necessary to the success of a matrix systems
a. The organizational culture may need to be changed to support collaboration.
b. Managers may need special training, especially in interpersonal relations.

Tow new types of organizational structure that have recently emerged: the process structure and the networked structure.
1. A process structure is a typed of departmentalization which groups positions into process team which are given beginning-to-end responsibility for that process or that specified work flow. The process structure is sometimes called the horizontal organization.
2. The networked structure is a form of organizing in which many functions are contracted out to other independent firms and coordinated through the use of information technology networks. Sometimes the networked structure is called the virtual corporation because it performs as if it were virtually one corporation.

Span of Command, Centralization vs. De- Centralization and Line vs. Staff Authority

METHODS OF VERTICAL COORDINATION
Vertical coordination is the linking of activities at the top of the organization with those at the middle and lower levels in order to achieve organizational goals.
Most organizations need some degree of formalization so that fundamental decisions do not have to be made more than once and so that inequities will be less likely to occur.
Being too highly formalized can lead to cumbersome operations, slowness in reacting to change, and low levels of creativity and innovation.
Span of management or span of control is the number of subordinates who report directly to a specific manager.
Managers should have neither too many nor too few subordinates.
Research indicates that there is no one universally correct span of management for all managers. Rather, spans of management can be narrower or broader depending on the circumstances of each managerial job.
1. Subordinates’ work is such that little interaction with others is required.
2. Managers and/or their subordinates are highly competent.
3. The work of subordinates is similar.
4. Problems are infrequent.
5. Subordinates are located within close physical proximity of one another.
6. Managers have few non supervisory duties to perform.
7. Managers have additional help such as secretaries or assistants.
8. The work is challenging enough to motivate subordinates to do a good job. Spans of management determine the number of hierarchical levels in an organization.
A tall structure is one that has narrow spans o management and many hierarchical levels in an organization.
A flat structure is one that has broader spans of management and few hierarchical levels and wide spans of control. The number of hierarchical levels in an organization affects organizational effectiveness.
Very tall organizations raise administrative overhead, slow communication and decision making, make it more difficult to pinpoint responsibility for various tasks, and encourage the formation of dull, routine jobs.
Restructuring is the process of making a major change in organization structure that often involves reducing management levels and also possibly changing some major components of the organization through divestiture and/or acquisition.
Downsizing must be planned and implemented carefully.
Done well, downsizing may result in reduced costs, faster decision making, more challenging jobs, fewer redundancies, and increased innovation.
Done poorly, downsizing may result in the loss of valuable employees, demoralized survivors, and an ultimate decline in productivity.
A five-year study showed only increases in profits and productivity in a relatively small number of firms that downsized while most had noticeable decreased in morale. The degree to which authority in an organization is centralized or decentralized affects the pattern of decision making in the organization.
Centralization is the extent to which power and authority are retained at the top organizational levels.
Decentralization is the extent to which power and authority are delegated to lower levels.
An organization is centralized if decisions made at lower levels are governed by a restrictive set of policies, procedures, and rules, and if situations not explicitly covered are referred to higher levels for resolution.
An organization is decentralized to the extent that decisions made at lower levels are made within a general set of policies, procedures, and rules, with decisions not covered left to the discretion of lower-level managers.
Centralization advantages
a. It is easier to coordinate the activities of various units and individuals.
b. Top managers have more experience and may therefore make better decisions.
c. Top managers have a broader perspective on decision situations.
d. Duplication of effort by various organizational units can be avoided.
e. Strong leadership is promoted.
Decentralization advantages
a. Top managers can concentrate upon major issues.
b. The jobs of lower-level employees are enriched by the challenge of making decisions.
c. Decisions can be made faster.
d. Individuals at lower levels may be closer to the problem and may be in a better position to make good decisions.
e. Relatively independent units emerge as divisions, with more easily measured outputs.
Organizations should move toward a decentralized structure when:
a) The organization is so large that top managers do not have the time or the knowledge to make all the major decisions.
b) Operations are geographically dispersed.
c) Top managers cannot keep up with complex technology.
d) The environment is increasingly uncertain.

The configuration of line and staff positions can affect the vertical integration in organizations.
1. A line position is a position that has authority and responsibility for achieving the major goals of the organization.
2. A staff position is a position whose primary purpose is providing specialized expertise and assistance to line positions.

a. Line authority is authority that follows the chain of command established by the formal hierarchy.
b. Staff departments have functional authority, authority over others in the organization in matters related directly to the staff departments’ functions.

PROMOTING INNOVATION: METHODS OF HORIZONTAL COORDINATION
Horizontal coordination is the linking of activities across departments at similar levels.
1. The need for horizontal coordination in an organization is directly proportional to the information-processing needs of the organization.
2. Organizations need to process more information under certain circumstances.
a. The organization faces complex and/or changing technology.
b. The environments are uncertain.
c. The company is growing.
3. In facilitating information processing across the organization, horizontal coordination also promotes innovation.
a. New ideas are more likely to emerge when views are shared.
b. Awareness of problems and opportunities across areas may spark creative solutions.
c. Involving employees in the development of ideas promotes commitment to proposed changes.
A managerial integrator is a manager who is given the tasks of coordinating related work that involves several functional departments.
1) Project managers usually are responsible for coordinating the work associated with a particular project until its completion.
2) Product managers orchestrate the launching of new products and services and may then continue coordinating interdepartmental work related to the new products and services.
3) Brand manager coordinate organizational efforts involving particular name-brand products, most often within the soap, food, and toiletries industries. Managerial integrators do not have the line authority and must gain the cooperation of staff mangers to implement their proposals.

Organizational Design and Organic vs. Mechanistic vs. Virtual Structures

Job Rotation
a. One purpose of job rotation is to combat boredom, but its success is short-lived if tasks are too simple.
b. Another purpose of job rotation is cross training so that there is maximum flexibility in job assignments.
c. A related purpose is employee development so that employees increase their capabilities and understanding of various aspects of the organization.
d. A potential problem is that rotating individuals may be treated as temporary helps and their loyalty perceived as questionable.
JOB enlargement
Job enlargement broadens job scope, the number of different tasks an employee performs in a particular job.
The problem is that if additional simple tasks are added, worker boredom may persist. Too, lower efficiency, mental overload, increased errors, and other problems may develop.
3. Job enrichment is the process of upgrading the job-task mix in order to increase significantly the potential for growth, achievement, responsibility, and recognition.
Job enrichment increases Job depth, the degree to which individuals can plan and control the work involved in their jobs.
The important job characteristics model is a model developed to guide job enrichment efforts that include consideration of core job characteristics, critical psychological states, and outcomes.
The job characteristics model has five core job characteristics.
1) Skill variety is the extent to which the job initials a number of activities that require different skills.
2) Task identity is the degree to which the job allows the completion of a major identifiable piece of work, rather than just a fragment.
3) Task significance is the extent to which the worker sees the job output as having an important impact on others.
4) Autonomy is the amount of discretion allowed in determining schedules and work methods for achieving the required output.
5) Feedback is the degree to which the job provides for clear, timely information about performance results.
According to the job characteristics model, the core characteristics will increase worker motivation only if workers experience three critical psychological states.
1) Workers must feel that the work is meaningful.
2) Workers must know they are responsible for the outcomes.
3) Workers must actually find out about results.
According to the job characteristics model, outcomes of the critical states will be higher internal work motivation, greater satisfaction of growth needs, higher general job satisfaction, and increased work effectiveness.
The job characteristics model is likely to be used successfully under two conditions.
1) Workers have high growth-need strength, the degree to which an individual
needs personal growth and development on the job.
2) Workers are satisfied with others aspects of the job context, i.e., supervision, pay, coworkers, and job security.
ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN DECISIONS
Organizations aren’t structured the same way. Top managers put a lot of thought into how best to design the organization’s structure. That “best” design depends on four contingency variables: the organization’s strategy, size, technology, and degree of environmental uncertainty.
There are two generic models of organizational design.

When is each design favored? It “depends” on the contingency variables. Contingency factors—appropriate structure depends on four contingency variables:
1. Strategy and structure.
One of the contingency variables that influence organizational design is the organization’s strategy.
Most current strategy-structure frameworks tend to focus on three strategy dimensions:
1) Innovation—needs the flexibility and free flow of information of the organic organization
2) Cost minimization—needs the efficiency, stability, and tight controls of the mechanistic organization
3) Imitation—which uses characteristics of both mechanistic and organic
Size and structure.
There’s considerable historical evidence that an organization’s size significantly affects its structure. Larger organizations tend to have more specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and formalization although the size-structure relationship is not linear.
Technology also has been shown to affect an organization’s choice of structure.
a. Every organization uses some form of technology to transform inputs into outputs.
b. The study of structure and technology found that organizations adapted to their technology and that three distinct technologies had increasing levels of complexity and sophistication.
1) Unit production is the production of items in units or small batches.
2) Mass production is large-batch manufacturing.
3) Process production is continuous-process production.
Environmental uncertainty and structure.
The final contingency factor that has been shown to affect organizational structure is environmental uncertainty. One way to manage environmental uncertainty is through adjustments in the organization’s structure. The more uncertain the environment, the more flexible and responsive the organization may need to be.

Chapter 7
Leading and Leadership Motivating Self and Others

Motivation

Effort is a measure of intensity or drive. High levels of effort are unlikely to lead to favorable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization.
Need is an internal state that makes certain outcomes appears attractive. An unsatisfied need creates tension that stimulates drives within an individual. These drives generate a search behavior to find particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the need and reduce the tension.
Hence motivation is the force that energizes behavior, gives direction to behavior, and underlies the tendency to persist.
1. A person’s motivation is not directly measurable, but must be inferred from behavior.
Performance is a function of ability, motivation, and working conditions.
Besides hiring individual with ability to do the work, managers have the challenge to provide working conditions that nurture and support individual motivation to work toward organization goals.
The main elements of motivation have been identified based on numerous studies. A simplified model of motivation has been developed.
1. Inner needs and cognitions lead to behaviors.
2. Appropriate behaviors may result in rewards, which reinforce the behaviors, fulfill needs, and provide cognitive input regarding the future association of behaviors and rewards.
3. Lack of rewards may lead to unfulfilled needs, un-reinforced behaviors, and cognitive input in the form of expectations about the future.
INTRINSIC MOTIVATORS
A person’s internal desire to do some thing for his satisfaction, respect, prestige or loyalty.
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATORS
Factors of motivation that comes from outside the person from environment or organization like pay, bonuses, tangible benefits etc.
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE: SUGGESTIONS FOR MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES
Recognize individual differences in terms of needs, attitudes, personality, and other important individual factors.
Match people to jobs by identifying what needs are important to individuals and trying to provide jobs that allow them to fulfill those needs.
Use goals, managers should ensure that employees have hard, specific goals and feedback on how well they’re doing in pursuit of those goals.
Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable. Employees who see goals as unattainable will reduce their levels of effort.
Individualize rewards. Because employees have different needs, what is a reward and reinforcer to one may not work for another.
Link rewards to performance by making rewards contingent on desired levels of performance.
Check the system for equity. Employees should perceive that the rewards or outcomes are equal to the inputs given.
Don’t ignore money. The allocation of performance-based increases, piecework bonuses, and other pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation.

Maslow’s Needs Theory and its Analysis
MASLOW’S NEED THEORY
According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, one of the most widely known theories of motivation, individual needs form a five-level hierarchy.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs from the most basic to the highest.
1. Physiological needs are basic and include needs for food, water, and shelter.
2. Safety needs pertain to the desire to be safe, secure, and free from threats to our existence.
3. Belongingness needs involve the desire to affiliate with and be accepted by others.
4. Esteem needs are related to the two-pronged desire to have a positive self-image and to have our contributions valued and appreciated by others.
5. Self-actualization needs pertain to the requirement of developing our capabilities and reaching our full potential.
Needs atone level do not have to be completely fulfilled before the next level becomes relevant.
As needs on one level are fulfilled, they cease to act as motivators and tension develops to fulfill needs at the next level.
ANALYSIS AND WEAKNESS OF THEORY
1. Five level of needs are not always present.
2. Order of needs and hierarchy may not be the same for all employees.
3. There are certainly cultural differences which the theory did not take care.
4. Analyzing the theory in country and cultural context, for example in China, the hierarchy of needs found was different than Maslow’s
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y were developed by Douglas McGregor and describe two distinct views of human nature.
1. Theory X was the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform.
2. Theory Y was the assumption that employees are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.
3. Theory X assumed that lower-order needs (Maslow’s) dominated individuals, and Theory Y assumed that higher-order needs dominated.


Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory states that there are only two categories of needs
Hygiene factors are factors that eliminated dissatisfaction. They included things such as supervision, organization policy, salary, working conditions, security, and so forth—extrinsic factors associated with job context, or those things surrounding a job.
There are several hygiene factors.
a. Pay
b. Working conditions
c. Supervisors
d. Company policies
e. Benefits
Motivators were factors that increased job satisfaction and hence motivation. They included things such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and so forth—intrinsic factors associated with job content, or those things within the job itself.
Motivator factor only can lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated.
1. Achievement
2. Responsibility
3. Work itself
4. Recognition
5. Growth and achievement

Expectancy, Goal Setting and Re-enforcement Theories






Leadership Trait Theories

LEADERSHIP

MANAGERS VERSUS LEADERS
There are distinctions between managers and leaders. Managers are appointed and have legitimate power within the organization.
Leaders are those persons who are able to influence others and who possess managerial authority.
HOW LEADERS INFLUENCE OTHERS
Leadership, the foundation of the management function of leading, is the process of influencing others toward the achievement of organizational goals.

Power is the capacity to affect the behavior of others. There are different types of power depending upon their sources originally identified by French and Raven.
1. Legitimate power stems from a position’s placement in the managerial hierarchy and the authority vested in the position.
2. Reward power is based on the capacity to control and provide valued rewards to others.
3. Coercive power is based on the possession of expertise that is valued by others.
4. Expert power is based on the possession of expertise that is valued by others.
5. Information power result from access to and control over the distribution of important information about organizational operations and future plans.
6. Referent power results from being admired, personally identified with, or liked by others.
The different types of power can engender different levels of subordinate motivation.
1. With commitment, employees respond enthusiastically and exert a high level of effort toward organizational goals.
a. Commitment is the most common outcome of referent power and expert power.
b. Commitment is least likely to result from the use of coercive power.
2. With compliance, employee exert at least minimal efforts to complete directives, but are likely to deliver average, rather than stellar, performance.
a. Compliance is the most likely outcome of the use of legitimate power, information power, and reward power.
b. Compliance is a possible outcome of coercive power if used in a helpful way or of referent power of expert power when some element of apathy is present.
3. With resistance, employees may appear to comply, but actually do the absolute minimum, possibly even attempting to sabotage the attainment of organizational goals.
a. Resistance is a likely outcome of coercive power.
b. Resistance is a possible outcome of other types of power if used inappropriately.
4. The effective manager is one who does not have to rely on a single power base but rather, has high levels of power in several (all if possible) of these six power types.

SEARCHING FOR LEADERSHIP TRAITS
Researchers began to study leadership in the early part of the 20th century. These early theories focused on the leader (trait theories) and how the leader interacted with his/her group members (behavior theories).
A. Trait Theories
1. Research in the 1920s and 1930s focused basically on leader traits with the intent to isolate one or more traits that leaders possessed, but that nonleaders did not.
2. Identifying a set of traits that would always differentiate leaders for nonleaders proved impossible.
B. Traits are distinctive internal qualities or characteristics of an individual such as physical characteristics (e.g., height, weight, appearance, energy), personality characteristics (e.g., dominance, extroversion, originality), skills and abilities (e.g., intelligence, knowledge, technical competence), and social factors (e.g., interpersonal skills sociability, and socioeconomic position).
C. A number of the early research attempts were reanalyzed in the 1950s and concluded that there is no set of traits which consistently distinguish leaders from non leaders.
D. Recent efforts suggest that the trait approach may have been abandoned prematurely.
1. More sophisticated statistical techniques are now available.
2. Several rather predictable traits have now been suggested such as
a. intelligence
b. dominance
c. aggressiveness
d. decisiveness
E. The question of whether traits can be associated with leadership remains open. Recent research work has looked at communication skills, human relations skills, resistance to stress, tolerance of uncertainty, and others.

Behavioral and Situational Models of Leadership
IDENTIFYING LEADER BEHAVIORS
A number of researchers have focused on the question of whether specific behaviors, rather than traits, make some leaders more effective than others.
1. If behavior studies turned up critical behavioral determinants of leadership, people could be trained to be leaders.
Four main leader behavior studies are carried out.
Three types of leadership behavior styles were identified (ONE REASEARCH STUDY)
a. Autocratic leaders tend to make unilateral decisions, dictate work methods, limit worker knowledge about goals to just the next step to be performed, and sometimes give feedback that is punitive.
b. Democratic leaders tend to involved the group in decision making, let the group determine work methods, make overall goals known, and use feedback as an opportunity for helpful coaching.
c. Laissez-faire leaders generally give the group complete freedom, provide necessary materials, participate only to answer questions, and avoid giving feedback.
MICHIGAN STUDIES
The Michigan studies compared leadership within groups already identified as effective or as ineffective.
1. A continuum was developed from employee-centered to job-centered approaches.
2. With the employee-centered approach, managers channel their main attention to the human aspects of subordinates’ problems and to the development of an effective work group dedicated to high performance goals.
3. With the job-centered approach (or production-centered approach), leaders divide the work into routine tasks, determine work methods, and closely supervise workers to ensure that the methods are followed and productivity standards are met.
The outcomes of the study were mixed, but they sometimes showed that the high-producing work units tended to have job-centered supervisors.
OHIO STATE STUDIES
Researchers at the Ohio State University developed a questionnaire to measure leaders’ behaviors and to correlate them with group performance and satisfaction.
1. Two behaviors were identified as particularly important.
a. Initiating structure is the degree to which a leader defines his or her own role and the roles of subordinates in terms of achieving unit goals.
b. Consideration is the degree to which a leader builds mutual trust with subordinates, respects their ideas, and shows concern for their feelings.
In contrast to the Iowa and Michigan studies, the two behaviors were considered to be independent variables and are best illustrated with separate continuums rather than the single continuum developed in the Iowa and Michigan studies.
The leader who is high in both initiating structure and consideration was thought to be the most effective, but further research indicated that such a generalization was too simplistic.
The Mouton-Blake Managerial Grid uses concern for people and concern for production as its two axes.
1. Used a training device; the grid enables managers to understand their own styles.
2. The manager high in concern for people and concern for production is the theoretical ideal.
Strategic Leadership Models
CUTTING-EDGE APPROACHES TO STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP
The research we’ve discussed has described transactional leader. What is the difference between transactional and transformational leaders?
1. Transactional leaders are leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.
2. Transformational leaders are leaders who provide individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation and possess charisma.
Transformational leadership is built on top of transactional leadership.
The evidence supporting the superiority of transformational leadership over the transactional variety is overwhelmingly impressive.
a. Transformational leaders motivate subordinates to perform at expected levels by helping them recognize task responsibilities, identify goals, acquire confidence about meeting desired performance levels, and understand how their needs and the rewards that they desire are linked to goal achievement.
b. Transformational leaders motivate individuals to perform beyond normal expectations by inspiring subordinates to focus on broader missions that transcend their own immediate self-interests, to concentrate on intrinsic higher-level goals (such as safety and d security), and to have confidence in their abilities to achieve the extraordinary missions articulated by the leadership.
Charisma is the leader’s ability to inspire pride, faith, and respect; to recognize what is really important, and to articulate effectively a sense of mission, or vision, that inspires followers.
Charisma was once thought to be an inborn personality trait. Recent research attempts to identify behaviors which cause people to view a person as charismatic.
CHARISMATIC-VISIONARY LEADERSHIP
Charismatic leadership theory is an extension of attribution theory and suggests that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.
Five personal characteristics of charismatic leaders have been identified.
a. Have a vision
b. Are able to articulate that vision
c. Are willing to take risks to achieve that vision
d. Are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs
e. Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary
An increasing amount of research shows impressive correlations between charismatic leadership and high performance and satisfaction among followers.
Most experts think that individuals can be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors
Charismatic leadership may not always be needed to achieve high levels of employee performance. It may be most appropriate when an employee’s job has a lot of ideological content.

TEAM LEADERSHIP
As the usage of work teams grows, the role of team leader becomes increasingly important.
1. The challenge for most managers is learning how to become an effective team leader.
2. Effective team leaders have mastered the difficult balancing act of knowing when to leave their teams alone and when to get involved.
There are two priorities for a team leader.
a. Managing the team’s external boundaries
b. Facilitating the team process
4. These priorities can be broken down into four specific leadership roles.
Liaisons with external constituencies
Troubleshooters
Conflict managers
Coaches
GENDER AND LEADERSHIP
The next contemporary leadership issue we want to discuss is gender and leadership. This topic is one that still creates controversy! What, if any, differences exist between male and female leaders and what implications would these differences have?
The evidence generally has found that males and females do use different leadership styles.
a. Women tend to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than men do.
b. Women are more likely to encourage participation, share power and information, and attempt to enhance followers’ self-worth.
c. Men are more likely to use a directive, command-and-control style.
d. Men rely on the formal authority of their position for their influence base.
e. Men use transactional leadership, handing out rewards for good work and punishment for bad.


3. However, gender doesn’t imply destiny. Which leadership style is effective depends on the situation. Gender simply provides a behavioral tendency in leadership style.

MANAGING CONFLICT IN GROUPS

Conflict can have constructive as well as destructive consequence. Conflict can delay projects, drive up costs, and cause valued employees to leave.
Conflict can highlight areas for improvement, promote constructive changes, enhance morale and cohesiveness, and encourage new ideas.
There are a number of causes of conflict.
a) Two types of task interdependence can lead to conflict.
i) Sequential interdependence occurs when one individual or work unit is heavily dependent on another.
ii) Reciprocal interdependence occurs when individuals or work units are mutually interdependent.
b) Scarcity of resources can lead to conflict.
c) Goals of different organizational members may be incompatible.
d) Communication may fail due to distortions or lack of communication.
e) Differences in personality, experience, and values may breed conflict.
f) Poorly designed reward systems may foster competitions when cooperative behavior is necessary for organizational success.
Managers may use a number of approaches to reduce and resolve conflict.
1. Conflict-producing factors in a situation can be changed.
2. One of five interpersonal modes may be adopted to resolve conflicts.
a. Avoidance involves ignoring or suppressing a conflict in the hope that it will either go away or not become too disruptive.
b. Accommodation focuses on solving conflicts by allowing the desires of the other party to prevail.
c. Competition involves attempting to win a conflict at the other party’s expense.
d. Compromise aims to solve conflict issues by having each party give up some desired outcomes in order to get other desired outcomes.
e. Collaboration involves devising solutions that allow both parties to achieve their desired outcomes.

Chapter 8
Controlling as a Management Function
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF CONTROLLING
Regardless of the thoroughness of the planning done, a program or decision still may be poorly or improperly implemented without a satisfactory control system in place.
Controlling is that process of regulating organizational activities so that actual performance conforms to expected organizational goals and standards. While interrelated with all of the other management functions, a special relationship exists between the planning function of management and controlling.
Planning, essentially, is the deciding of goals and objectives and the means of reaching them. Controlling lets manages tell if the organization is on track for goal achievement, and if not, why not. A well developed plan should provide benchmarks that can be used in the control process.
Controls serve other important roles including helping managers cope with uncertainty, detecting irregularities, identifying opportunities, handling complex situations, and decentralizing authority. Like planning, controlling responsibilities differ by managerial level with control responsibilities paralleling planning responsibilities at the strategic, tactical, and operational level.
There are several major steps usually identified in the basic control process. These are, in order, determining the areas to be controlled, establishing the appropriate standards, measuring performance, comparing the performance against standards, recognizing performance if standards are met or exceeded or take corrective actions as necessary if not, and adjusting either/or standards and measures as necessary.
Of course it would be impossible to control all activity in an organization. Consequently, it is important for the manager to decide which activities should have the control process applied. The argues that managers need to consider controls mainly in areas in which they depend on others for resources necessary to reach organizational goals. Four conditions help delineate when controls should be used.
These are having a high dependence on the resource, having a high expectation that the resource flows would be unacceptable without proper controls, that the instituting of a control process would be feasible, and that the total control process costs would be within the acceptable range.
Timing is one of the bases for differentiating control systems. Some major control types are based on timing. These include feed forward controls, concurrent controls, and feedback controls. These are terms which are unfamiliar to many students and special note needs to be made in reviewing this material. A variety of these types of control are frequently used in multiple control systems and usually involve no cybernetic. Cybernetic controls involve little, if any, human discretion as part of the system. Rather, it is a self-regulating system that, once put into operation, can automatically monitor the situation and take corrective action when necessary. Noncybernetic systems, on the other hand rely on human discretion as a basic part of its process.
In addition to deciding the types of controls to use, managers also have the options regarding the mechanisms to be used to implement controls. The three basic approaches are bureaucratic, clan, and market. Bureaucratic controls rely on regulation through rules, policies, supervision, budgets, schedules, reward systems, and other administrative mechanisms aimed at ensuring acceptable behavior and performance Clan controls rely on the values, beliefs, traditions, corporate culture, shared norms, and informal relationships to regulate behavior and to facilitate the reaching of organizational goals. The market controls have a somewhat more limited application in organizations than do bureaucratic or clan
controls; all three approaches are likely to be used to some extent. Market controls rely on market mechanisms to regulate prices for certain goods and services used by the organization.
There are some potential dysfunctional aspects of control systems the manager must consider. Behavioral displacement, game playing, operating delays, and negative attitudes are some of these. To decrease the likelihood of thee effects, managers need to avoid engaging in either over-control or under-control. To be effective, control systems should be future-oriented, multidimensional, cost-effective, accurate, realistic, timely monitorable, acceptable to organization members, and flexible.
CONTROL AS A MANAGEMENT PROCESS
A. Controlling, one of the four major functions of POLCA management, is the process of regulating organizational activities so that actual performance conforms to expected organizational standards and goals.
1. Controlling is largely geared to ensuring that the behavior of individuals in the organization contribute to reaching organizational goals.
2. Controls encourage wanted behaviors and discourage unwanted behaviors.
B. A control system is a set of mechanisms that are designed to increase the probability of meeting organizational standards and goals.
C. Controls can play five important roles in organizations.
1. Control systems enable managers to cope with uncertainty by monitoring the specific activities and reacting quickly to significant changes in the environment.
2. Controls help managers detect undesirable irregularities, such as product defects, cost overruns, or rising personnel turnover.
3. Controls alert managers to possible opportunities by highlighting situations in which things are going better than expected.
4. Controls enable managers to handle complex situations by enhancing coordination within large organizations.
5. Controls can decentralize authority by enabling managers to encourage decision making at lower levels in the organization while still remaining in control.
D. Control responsibilities differ according to managerial level.
1. Strategic control involves monitoring critical environmental factors that could affect the viability of strategic plans, assessing the effects of organizational strategic actions, and ensuring that strategic plans are implemented as intended.
a. Strategic control is typically the domain of top-level managers who must insure core competencies are developed and maintained.
b. Long time frames are involved, although shorter time frames may be appropriate in turbulent environments.
2. Tactical control focuses on assessing the implementation of tactical plans at departmental levels, monitoring associated periodic results, and taking corrective action as necessary.
a. Tactical control is primarily under the direction of middle managers, but top-level managers may at times get involved.
b. Time frames are periodic, involving weekly or monthly reporting cycles.
c. Tactical control involves department-level objectives programs, and budgets.
3. Operational control involves overseeing the implementation of operating plans, monitoring day-to-day results, and taking corrective action when required.
a. Operational control is the responsibility of lower-level managers.
b. Control is a day-to-day process.
c. The concern is with schedules, budgets, rules, and specific outputs of individuals.
4. For controls and three levels to be effective they must operate in concert with one another.
THE CONTROL PROCESS
A. The basic process used in controlling has several major steps.
1. Determine areas to control.
a. It is impractical, if not impossible, to control every aspect of an organization’s activities.
b. Major controls are based on the organizational goals and objectives developed during the planning process.
2. Develop standards spelling out specific criteria for evaluating performance and related employee behaviors.
a. Standards are often incorporated into the objectives set in the planning process.
b. Standards serve three main purposes related to employee behavior.
1) Standards help employee understand what is expected and how their work will be evaluated.
2) Standards provide a basis for detecting job difficulties that are related to personal limitations of organization members.
3) Standards help reduce the potential negative effects of goal incongruence, a condition in which there are major incompatibilities between the goals of an organization member and those of the organization.
3. Make a decision about how and how often to measure performance related to a given standard.
a. MBO is a popular technique for coordinating the measurement of performance throughout an organization.
b. The means of measuring performance depends upon the performance standards that have been set, as well as data, such as units produced, quality of output, or profits.
c. Most organizations use combinations of both quantitative and qualitative performance measures.
d. The period of measurement usually depends upon
1) The importance of the goal to the organization
2) How quickly the situation is likely to change
3) The difficulty and expense of rectifying a problem if one were to occur
4. Compare performance against standards.
a. Reports that summarize planned versus actual results are often developed.
b. Management by exception is a control principle which suggests that managers should be informed of a situation only if control data show a significant deviation from standards.
c. Mangers may compare performance and standards through personal observation.
d. The 360-degree feedback system described in chapter 10 is being used by a number of organizations as an evaluation approach.
5. Recognize above-standard performance both to give precognition to top performing employees and also to aid improving performance on a regular bases.
6. Assess the reason why standards are not met, and take corrective action.
7. Adjust standards and measures as necessary.
a. Standards and measures need to be checked for relevance.
b. Managers must decide whether the cost of meeting certain standards is worth the resources consumed.
c. Exceeding a standard may signal opportunities, the potential to raise standards, and/or the need for possible adjustments in organizational plans.
B. Managers can take a number of approaches to deciding what to control.
1. Resource dependence is an approach based on the view that managers need to consider controls mainly in areas in which they depend on others for resources consider control mainly in areas in which they depend on others for resources necessary to reach organizational goals.
a. Strategic control points are performance areas chosen for control because the are particularly important in meeting organizational goals.
b. Strategic control points meet four conditions.
1) Dependence on a resource is high because the resource is important and limited in availability.
2) The probability that the expected resource flow will be unacceptable is high because of anticipated problems with quantity, quality, or timeliness.
3) Instituting a control system is feasible.
4) The cost of instituting the control system is acceptable.
2. Mangers need to develop an alternative to controls if they are needed, but cannot be instituted due to problems of feasibility or cost.
a. The dependence relationship can be changed so that controls are unnecessary, e.g., lining up several suppliers.
b. The nature of the dependence relationship can be changed so that a control system is feasible and/or cost-effective, e.g., job simplification or vertical integration.
c. Organizational goals can be changed so that the resources in question are no longer necessary.

REVISITING CONTROL PROCESS
Let us take the control process as the three-step process of measuring actual performance, comparing it against a standard, and taking managerial action to correct deviations or inadequate standards.
A. Measuring.
Measuring is the first step in the control process.
1. How we measure is done through four common sources of information that managers use.
Each of these sources has its own advantages and drawbacks.
a. Personal observation
b. Statistical reports
c. Oral reports
d. Written reports
2. What we measure is probably more critical than the how. Both objective and subjective measures are used.
B. Comparing is the next step in the control process.
1. It determines the degree of variation between actual performance and the standard.
2. It’s critical to determine the range of variation, which are the acceptable parameters of variance between actual performance and the standard.
C. Taking managerial action is the final step in the control process. Although the manager might decide to “do nothing,” two other alternatives are possible.
1. Correct actual performance. Once the manager has decided to correct actual performance, he or she has another decision to make.
a. Take immediate corrective action, which is correcting an activity at once in order to get performance back on track.
b. Take basic corrective action, which is determining how and why performance has deviated and correcting the source of deviations.
c. The action taken will depend on the cost/benefit of doing so.
2. Revise the standard. If the standard was set too high or too low, a manager may decide to revise it.
D. Summary of Managerial Decisions.
The control process is a continuous flow between measuring, comparing, and managerial action.
DESIGNING CONTROL SYSTEMS
Since control is the process of monitoring activities to ensure they are being accomplished as planned and of correcting any significant deviations. There are three different approaches to designing organizational control systems. A. Market control is an approach that emphasizes the use of external market mechanisms to establish the standards used in the control system.
B. Bureaucratic control is an approach that emphasizes organizational authority and relies on administrative rules, regulations, procedures, policies, standardization of activities, well-defined job descriptions, and other administrative mechanisms to ensure that employees exhibit appropriate behaviors and meet performance standards.
1. Bureaucratic control has advantages.
a. Unlike market control, bureaucratic control does not require that all requirements be specified in advance.
b. Bureaucratic control is useful for keeping recurring, relatively predictable
activities running smoothly.
c. Bureaucratic control focuses on doing the job and aids extrinsic reward systems.
2. Bureaucratic control has disadvantages.
a. Innovation is not encouraged.
b. Needed changes may be inhibited.
c. Employees tend to comply with regulations rather than committing to a course of action.
C. Market control relies on market mechanisms to regulate prices for certain clearly specified goods and services needed by an organization.
1. Two conditions must hold if market control is to be used.
a. There must be a reasonable level of competition in the goods or service area.
b. It must be possible to specify requirements clearly.
2. Market controls may be used to regulate internal operations as well as external relations.
a. Profit centers, e.g., photocopying centers, are set up and charge other departments for their services.
b. The intra-organizational use of market controls is limited because the conditions of competitiveness and specificity or requirements may not hold.
The use of market controls is increasing. For example, outsourcing, using outside vendors to perform services normally carried out within the organization, is becoming a more common practice.
D. Clan control is an approach to designing control systems in which employee behaviors are regulated by the shared values, norms, traditions, rituals, beliefs, and other aspects of the organization’s culture.
Clan control relies on values, beliefs, traditions, corporate culture, share norms and information relationships to regulate employee behaviors and facilitate the reaching of organizational goals.
1. Clan control differs from bureaucratic control.
a. Internal motivation is emphasized.
b. Duties are flexible and tasks are broadly defined.
c. Influence is based on relevant information and expertise, rather than upon position in the hierarchy.
2. A primary advantage of clan control is that it is conducive to innovation.

Controlling Organizational Performance through Productivity and Quality
TYPES OF CONTROLS
The emphasis is upon preventing problems.
Other names for feed forward control are “preliminary control,” “pre-control,” “preventative control” and “steering control.”
Checkpoints are in place to determine whether to continue the process, take corrective action, or stop work altogether.
Other names for concurrent control are “screening” and “yes-no control.”
This type of control is not appropriate for work that requires creativity or innovation.
Feedback control is used when feed forward and concurrent controls are not feasible or are too costly.


Feedback control serves a number of functions:
1) To serve as a final means to check for deviations not detected earlier
2) To provide information that will facilitate the planning process
3) To provide information regarding employee performance
Other names for feedback control are “post action control” or “output control.”
CONTROLLING FOR ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Organizational Performance
Measures of Organizational Performance
Employees need to see the connection between what they do and the outcomes. The most frequently used organizational performance measures include organizational productivity, organizational effectiveness, and Its rankings.
Organizational productivity is the overall output of goods or services produced divided by the inputs needed to generate that output. It’s the management’s job to increase this ratio.
Organizational effectiveness is a measure of how appropriate organizational goals are and how well an organization is achieving those goals.
TOOLS FOR MONITORING AND MEASURING ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Managers might use any of the following types of performance control tools: financial controls, information controls, balanced scorecard approach, or benchmarking best practices approach.
A. Financial Controls Measures.
1) Financial ratios are calculated by taking numbers from the organization’s primary financial statements—the income statement and the balance sheet. The four key categories of financial ratios are as follows.
a) Liquidity ratios measure an organization’s ability to meet its current debt obligations.
b) Leverage ratios examine the organization’s use of debt to finance its assets and whether it’s able to meet the interest payments on the debt.
c) Activity ratios measure how efficiently the firm is using its assets.
d) Profitability ratios measure how efficiently and effectively the firm is using its assets to generate profits.
2) Budgets are also control tools. They provide managers with quantitative standards against which to measure and compare actual performance and resource consumption.
3) Other Financial Control Measures.
a) Economic value added is a tool for measuring corporate and divisional performance by calculating after-tax operating profit minus the total annual cost of capital.
b) Market value added adds a market dimension by measuring the stock market’s estimate of the value of a firm’s past and expected capital investment projects.
B. Information Controls.
1) A management information system is a system that provides managers with needed and usable information on a regular basis.
a) Managers need usable information, not just data
i) Data are raw, unanalyzed facts.
ii) Information is analyzed and processed data. Information can help managers control the various organizational areas efficiently and effectively. It plays a vital role in the controlling process.

C. Balanced Scorecard Approach.
The intent of the balanced scorecard is to emphasize that all of these areas are important to an organization’s success.
D) Benchmarking of Best Practices
Research shows that best practices frequently already exist within an organization, but usually go unidentified and unused.
Internal benchmarking best practices program.
ESTABLISHING QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
By implementing international quality standards like ISO-9000, European Quality Award, Deming Prize, or Malcom Balridge Award ; an organization can boost its productivity and quality. This will give leverage for a continuous improvement and consistent quality products for customers and keeping the employees happy as well. One can also adapt TQM philosophy of Deming, Juran or Crosby or Taguchi to outperform their competitors in the global market.

Chapter 9
Office Management
“Office management is the organization of an office in order to achieve a specified purpose and to make the best case of the personnel by using the most appropriate machines and equipments, the best possible method of work and by providing most suitable environment”.
Manager refers to conduct, to control and to administer. It also refers to guidance and managing the affairs in a manner in which it may help the organization to achieve a pre-determined result. Office management may, therefore; to providing the guidance to the staff who is entrusted the job of achieving the objectives of the organization by organizing the personnel in a way in which appropriate environment is created for efficient and purposeful office working.
Article I. Elements of office management
From the above we may draw the following four elements of Office Management:
I. Office personnel
II. Means
III. Environment
IV. Purpose
Article II. OFFICE MANAGER
Office manager is one who heads the office and who organizes and controls the office activities in such a manner which ensures efficient service scientifically and economically. The office manager is the guide, friend and philosopher of the whole office staff who is made responsible for all the ills of his office and the staff is showered petals for all the successes his office and staff achieve.
Article III. Role of office Manager
What role the office manager is required to play depends upon the nature, size and organizational structure of the office of which he is the head. Whatever may be the role which he may be asked to play, it is a fact that his role is challenging in all the circumstances and situations, as we have pointed out above the office manager is not only a controller or administrator or supervisor but he has to be a guide, friend and philosopher first and then after any thing else. This burdens him with the responsibility of carrying all with him so that the organization may achieve what actually it has to achieve.
The office is a service function. It is to help others in the department as well as outside the department in achieving the goal therefore, though indirectly, it helps in production, purchase, sale, and stores etc. And here, therefore, the office manager has to co-ordinate the activities of all so that no where there is laxity and at no time due to office any thing goes wrong. He is answerable to those who are working with. He is to balance both the ends and work with purpose, skill and efficiency.
Article IV. Function of Office Manager
Generally the office manager performs the following functions:
1. Planning, organization, direction and control.
2. Select the place of the office and plan the layout.
3. Maintain favorable atmosphere.
4. To procure and maintain the office stationery and equipment etc.
5. To select, train remunerate and motivate the staff.
6. Evolving a system of correspondence. Public Relations.
7. Office is the centre of activity.



Article V. QUALIFICATION OF OFFICE MANAGER
1) Academically sound and well-trained.
2) Personal Qualities.
3) Leadership.
4) Organizing capacity.
5) Experience.
Office Organization
Office organization refers to organization of office activities in a manner in which it is able to deliver the goods with speed and to serve the purpose for which it as established. It is, therefore, a harmonious adjustment of all office activities for the accomplishment the task assigned to it. Maximum efficiency at minimum cost is the motto of office organization.
Article VI. Techniques of organization
To achieve it takes the following steps while organizing itself for effectively and purposeful functioning:
1. forming groups of essential activities of the office ;
2. classifying the groups so formed in different homogenous major heads function, i.e.,, division in functional departments ;
3. selecting suitable office personnel, supervisions and executives for each of the divisions so formed ;
4. allocating the duties keeping into mind the skill required;
5. delegating the authority keeping into mind the ability of each individual ;
6. providing necessary facilities (forms, equipments, machines etc.) ; and
7. Making arrangement for refresher courses and in service training so as to bring the personnel up to a marked level.
Above steps are taken in organizing an office with sole aim in view to make the office a dependable, efficient and economic service section of the unit to which it is attached and to which it is required to serve.
Article VII. The principles of organization
In organizing an office manager may be guided by the following principles:
1. Defining the objectives.
2. Division of work.
3. Balancing the powers giving and accountability requirements:
4. Centralized order, i.e., one command.
5. Limited personal under one control.
6. Minimum but well defined hierarchy.
7. A balance between centralized and decentralized.
8. Even distribution of work.
9. Elasticity.
10. Continuity.
11. Simple.
12. Development of leadership..
Article VIII. Centralization of an office organization
In any organization concentration of authority and powers in the hands of top management is referred to as centralization, everything which goes to reduce the importance of subordinates role in an organization is known as centralization. In such a type of office organization, the authority and powers of each and every activity lies in the hands of top few, say office manager and his immediate subordinate, and other subordinates play the second and subsequent fiddles. In fact, they are not to play any role. Instead they asked to work and only work according to the dictates of what the boss wants and orders.
Centralization of the powers in respect of planning and control in not a new thing in any management. But centralization refers to the reduction of subordinates to a naught. Thus, treatment accorded to them is only that of a machine. Subordinates are asked only to function as a machine whereas the top management functions as operators. In fact, this position has brought disrepute to the term centralization in modern management set-up.
Article IX. Advantages of centralization
1. Facility for personnel leadership. There is absolutely no doubt that the centralized
Office organization helps in establishing a personnel leadership which may even be able to convert a losing business house into a profitable one because of strong, efficient, purposeful and non controversial central leadership.
2. Equitable distribution of work. In order to group together and economies the working as well as cost the grouping of two and more departments into one also placing the same under one control goes a long way in equitably distributing in workload not only between different departments but between individual worker as well. This brings economy and speed.
3. Uniformity of activities. Obviously when centralized, the activities will be either in the hand of one individual or a few one but under his (one) direct, control. This will result into uniformity of activities and thereby ensuring uniform decision and uniform process.
4. Specialization. Specialization of work as well as process and handling of the work by the staff who has specialized in the work he is handling are a few of the meaningful advantages of specialization.
5. Economy. The uniformity of activities and specialization of work lead to economic operation and best utilization of the staff services. This brings efficiency and smoothness as well. All these bring economy.
6. No duplication of work. Centralized personal leadership, uniformity of activities and specialization leave no scope for duplication of work in the office. Thus extra labor and extra cost involved in duplication is avoided and economy is ensured.
7. Quick decision. For taking advantage of rare opportunities coming in the way, it is necessary that decision should be quickly taken lest the opportunity so available may be slipped away. Centralized office organization helps in such a quick decision.
8. Greater flexibility. In case of any emergency arising the uniformity of activities help in adjusting the activities, procedure and decisions taken. This adjustment ensures flexibility the opportunity for which is available in centralized office organization in greater degree.
9. Standardization and training facilities enhanced. Centralized office organization helps in standardizing the work and thereby helps in extending the training facilities to everyone and every work in the organization which needs specialization, standardization and attention The new staff member can easily pick up the work and can easily be accommodated and adjusted in such a set-up.
10. Effective control. Uniformity in activities, specialization and standardization facilitates greater degree or supervision, effective co-ordination, self and departmental integration and thus ensure effective control.
11. Fixing of responsibility is facilitated. It is possible in decentralized system to locate the fault and detect the deviations and thus is able to pinpoint and take effective measures to improve by knowing and then fixing the responsibility and thereby improving the working and efficiency.
Article X. Disadvantages of centralization
However, a centralized set-up suffers from the following disadvantages:
1. Delay in work. Quick decision is possible but only at the top level, since decision is take only by the top, it is not possible to take quick decision whenever the top is neither available nor is in a mood to take one. This results in delaying the work since it is the top who is to take decision and none else.
2. Bureaucracy. Bureaucracy leads to red tapism. A centralized set-up breads red-tapism which does not only delay the work but also sometimes helps in the raining of eye brows because bureaucracy always leads to discrimination.
3. Distinctive to subordinates. Subordinate in such a set up only is required to implement whatever it is asked to carry out. No independent decision making authority. A mechanical working always creates mental reservation. The subordinate does not take imitative nor is he allowed to do so. Thus there remains no charm in either the work or the organization as he knows fully well that no upper ladder is there for him as he is not allowed to take any initiative.
4. No loyalty. Since the initiative is not there, charm is not there. Zeal is absent. No involvement is there. Only the implementation of job is there. This means “work like a machine as ordered.” Such a psychology always never works. Thus neither the work for the organization is treated as own one, obviously from a servant loyalty can be expected only when he is allowed to think that he is very much the part of the department and the organization. This is always missing. This brings lack of loyalty among the working force.
5. Lack of secrecy. Secrecy in a centralized set up cannot be maintained as the orders and decisions flow from one place and conveyed to all. Moreover, all work at a place, under one roof, one control and one office department. Thus secrecy even if tried cannot be maintained as effectively as might be required.
Section 10.01 DECENTRALISATION
Article XI. Decentralization
“ Delegation of authority and duties” is usually referred to as decentralization in which set up the organization is divided into different section and departments in order to help the organization grow scientifically and with a purpose of direction leading to harmony in relations and healthy atmosphere which generally is absent in centralized system of organization.
“Decentralization of authority,” holds koonts and O’Donnell, “ is a fundamental phase of delegation.” To the extent that authority is not delegated is obviously centralization. In the words of Henry fayol, “every thing that goes to increase the importance of the subordinate’s role is decentralization.”
Decentralization is diffusion of authority. It is a process by which specific responsibility is assigned to subordinates. Such a responsibility, when assigned to subordinates, is always followed by sufficient authority which also is given to the executive and other subordinates at lower levels. Decentralization, therefore, refers to assigning of responsibility and delegation of authority to various executives and other subordinates at lower levels in an effort to make the lower level more responsible and accountant able to the job entrusted to them.
Article XII. Advantages of Decentralization
The following are the advantages of decentralized setup of an organization:
Distribution of Executive’s Burden. Certainly the decentralized setup offers an opportunity to the executive to share his burden with others at lower level in the process making himself free for more urgent and important work requiring his undivided attention. This smoothens the work gives speed to the work, creates cordial atmosphere and better understanding and develops team spirit among all those who are working for the organization.
Saving in Time. The work originating at a particular level in an organization may be accomplished at the same level, if it falls within the limit of the authority of that level. Such work generally originates and accomplished. This naturally saves time and gives a speed to the work.
Enthusiastic and Energetic Subordinates. The subordinate, who is asked to shoulder the responsibility with sufficient authority feels enthusiastic and functions with extra zeal and energy. In fact he feels elevated, his ego is satisfied and he is filled with energy simply because he is to work on his own. An involvement is there. A sense of being a part of the organization and a sense of accomplishment gives the subordinate vigor and vision. He works hard and accomplishes the task. This helps the organization in achieving the target satisfactorily.
Greater Efficiency and output. Since the responsibility is given with authority and power everyone entrusted with such a responsibility takes care of fulfilling his responsibility with utmost care. This care and caution and enthusiastic approach to the work ensure increased efficiency and output.
Expansion Facility. It offers greater scope for expansion of business as decentralized setup makes free the top managing people from routine and other matters and thus time available to them may be utilized by them for new thinking and new ideas. This gives an opportunity to plane expansion and achieve the same without much of difficulty. Expansion of modern business houses is the direct outcome of decentralized system of organization.
Secrecy maintained. Comparatively here in such a sets up secrecy can easily and effectively be maintained without much cost and unnecessary trouble.
Utilization of available talents. The talents available can be best utilized in decentralized setup as everyone is given an opportunity to prove his worth. Such an opportunity is usually not available in centralized setup. This also ensures loyalty and develops team spirit as well. Capability is rewarded here and one is given a chance to improve, if someone, somewhere, lacks due to one reason or the other.
Quick Decisions. For decision one is not required to reach on the top. Just one can take decision whenever one has to take without wasting time and energy in rituals and maintaining the channel. Unnecessary wastage of time energy and money is avoided giving overall better performance.

Office Location
The site or location of the office building is an important consideration while making a provision of proper and adequate office accommodation. If location of office building is not suitable it may result in wastage of efforts, loss of time, annoyance and inconvenience. Due to all these all round inefficiency may rule the office operations. It is, therefore, necessary that the choice of site or location of the office building should be done with utmost care. Agreed that there cannot be an ideal location for every type of office. Each enterprise business or non business may have its own problems in mind and while making a choice it may weigh them and then decide because of its own peculiar requirements etc. there may also be discussions whether one should have an urban location or suburban one. Proximity to related trade or offices nearness of service facilities like banks, post offices, fire offices etc. easy accessibility to customers, communication facilities, transport facilities are a few of the considerations which may complete the manager to make a choice of a centrally located place in an urban area. However, high rent an taxes overcrowding, congestion of traffic, noise, dust and fumes, less scope for expansion and modernization an other related problems of an urban location may detract the office manager who opt for suburban location. Modern offices are being organized on decentralized basis. They may opt for sub urban areas as well for their branches and sub offices and have their main offices in a centrally located place. It is suggested that best decision will be to strike a balance between the two types of locations before taking a firm decision in the matter.
Article XIII. Factors of choice of Location
1. Suitability of Neighborhood.
2. Proximity to other units.
3. Proximity to related trades and offices.
4. Proximity to service facilities.
Section 13.01 LAYOUT OF OFFICE
Hicks and place holds that office layout is “the arrangement of work stations procedures and personnel can function at maximum efficiency.”
“Office layout,” according to P.K. Ghosh, refers to the arrangement and placing of men and equipment within each department or section of the office with a view to make the best possible utilization of the available space or accommodation.”
Littlefield and Peterson have defined office layout as “the arrangement of furniture and equipment within the available floor space”
“Office layout”, according to Bhusan and Mittal, “is the arrangement of equipment within the available floor space.”
(a) Objectives of office layout
To achieve the following objectives an office layout is placed and strictly adhered to unless expansion and modernization is not being planned. In that case also a layout has to be planned to achieve the objectives enumerated below:
1. To increase the efficiency and thereby productivity.
2. To best utilize the available space according to the utilization plan pre determined according to requirements.
3. To create comforts and satisfactory working conditions.
4. To facilitate supervision.
5. To maintain safety and secrecy.
6. To effect a balance between the space, equipments, work operations, procedure and the work speed.
7. To facilitate effective control.
8. To impress those coming into the contact of the office.

Principles of office layout
An ideal office layout is certainly not possible. However, a well-planned office layout may be prepared for any type of office by taking help of the following principles:
1 Full utilization of available space.
2. Adequate space for staff and equipment.
3. Co related departments should be housed in close proximity.
4. Uninterrupted flow of work.
5. Private office and reception and reception rooms.
6. Flexibility and expansion.
7. Safety.
WORKING ENVIRONMENT
IMPORTANT COMPONENTS
The following are the seven important components of working environment:
Office lighting.
Temperature and humidity.
Ventilation
Noise
Interior decoration
color conditioning
Sanitation and cleanliness

Communication
Communication is an exchange of written or viral information. Communication aims at influencing the thinking ideas and behavior of others..
Communication is, therefore, to tell to inform to show or to spread information. It is referred to as an inter-exchange of thoughts and information. Communication is:
A two way traffic,
A continuous process,
A short period process (as long as messages etc. are being made understood or received) , and
Process of conveying messages etc. by adopting different media of communication.
(b) Processes or essential elements of communication
Communication is short lived continuous process conveyed through various media. A communication passes through the following five processes sometimes described as essential elements:
1. Preparing the message. The subject matter of a communication is known as
Message which may be defined as any fact, idea, order, complaint or any matter meant to be communicated by and within an organization. This must first be prepared in the manner in which it is intended to be communicated.
2. Sending the message. The one who conveys the message is called sender and the process of conveying the same is called communication. This message is sent. Unless it is sent it cannot be said to have been communicated. Communication implies sanding of a message.
3. Receiving the message. This one who receives the message is called receiver. In communication principles it is not that the receiver of the message must be acceptable to him. The function of communication is over the moment the message is received. Of course it should be received and understood by the receiver. This certainly is an important characteristic of a communication.
4. Channelising the communication. The person or departments through which a communication passes is known as communication channel and sending the communication through properly or traditionally accepted channel is called channelising the communication.
5. Encoding or symbolizing the communication. The words symbols signs etc. which are used in communication are known as symbols. Symbols etc. are allotted well before the help of the symbols etc. are taken in communication or encoding the communication..
Purpose or objectives of communication
The following are the main purpose of a communication:
1. Conveying the right message. The communication is meant for conveying the message which should be the right one to the right person. The message conveyed should be well understood and accepted. The message is not only meant for simple understanding or acceptance. It has to be translated into practice as well. The receiver should, therefore, understand it correctly and he may then, be able to carry out the message effectively.
2. Co ordination. Communication serves as a tool for coordinating activity. Co ordination with communication remote possibility.
3. Good industrial relations. To have a good industrial relation it invites every success at your doorsteps. Success is considered to be in the bag of an industrial enterprise. Communication aims at such a good industrial relation.
4. Development of managerial skill. Communication is a learning process. Facts, information’s, ideas, etc. need enriches the knowledge of the executive. He tries to make use of the acquired knowledge which results into an increase in his wisdom and skill.
5. Effectiveness in policies. Policies and programmes of the enterprise need to be communicated to those who are to execute them. Effective communication translates the policies into effective instrument of seeing through the organization on the rail of its progress. Effectiveness of the policies can be judged from its success which surely depends on effective communication system.
All these are morale booster: employees, who are responsible to accomplish the given task, assure the success. Their efficiency improves with effective communication. Productivity increases. Cost of operation shows a declining trend and workers function with their heart and soul in the organization.
1) PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION
The following are the principles of communication which, if followed in letter and spirit, ensures the success to the messages communicated:
1. Principle of clarity.
2. Principle of attention.
3. Principle of consistency.
4. Principle of adequacy.
5. Principle of time.
6. Principle of integration.
7. Principle of informality
8. Principle of feedback.
Measuring the success of communications.
Whether communication has left desired effect on he recipient?
Whether the recipient has accepted it in letter and spirit both?
Whether the recipient has taken the communication lightly or seriously?
Whether the recipient has the capacity to follow the communication?
Whether the recipient has understood it?
Whether the recipient has the authority and necessary powers to get the communication executed?
Whether the recipient is willing to execute?
These are a few preliminary questions which lone asks before he proceeds to measure the success of communication. If the answers to these are in affirmative the communication, it may be taken has succeeded. He may measure the success by conducting surveys and also by asking reports. The survey may cover all spheres of activities in order to ascertain various types of reactions and to get different types of information. The reports may be helpful in ascertaining the reactions etc. of the recipient and accordingly success or failure of communication may be judged.
2) KINDS OF COMMUNICATION
Barely methods of communication may be divided into the following four kinds:
Formal and informal communication.
Oral and written communication.
Downward and upward communication.
Horizontal communication.
Formal communication is one wherein the importance is attached to the status
Or position of the communicator as well as the receiver in the hierarchy of the organization. Formal communications usually maintain a relationship between two positions. The one executive usually communicates with another executive either of the same status or with one who is immediately subordinate to him. It is based on scalar chain and is most successful in an organist on which has adopted scalar chain system for organizing itself.
Informal communication. The is based on informal relationship that grows up in any organization informally. This is usually referred to as the grapevine system of communication. A nod, a glance, a gesture, a smile, a silence may be the method of conveying the message in this system of communication. Informal communication is more indirect, less explicit, mostly unofficial, spontaneous and flexible. Informal communication is good tell it holds together because it grows like a grape. But it seldom satisfies management unless it is alert and vigilant in every sense of the term otherwise it proves to be disastrous.
Oral communication. Through spoken words, if messages etc. are conveyed, it is then termed as oral communication. It is in the mind of the communicator or the recipient. Face to face conversation is obviously helpful. Here understanding is better. The scope of better communication grows up
Written communication. Communication in the form of circulars, bulletins, manuals, handbooks notes, orders, instruction, official notification, telegrams are the various forms of communication in writing. Written communications are formal whereas oral one is informal.
Downward communication. When communication flows from the superiors to subordinates it is called downward communication. It is effectively in line organization.
Upward communication. When communication moves upward from subordinates to the superiors it is called upward communication. Suggestions, reactions, responses, altitudes etc. are usually communicated by this method. Again it is effectively used in line organization.
Horizontal communication. This method is also known as lateral or crosswise communication. Such a communication takes place between two personnel of the same status, e.g. Two departmental heads or any two or more persons bound by relationship of equality may communicate and do communicate. Such communication is called horizontal one. Conference, seminars, committees, reviews etc. are the process through which horizontal communication takes place.

(c) Office Systems, Procedures and Manual
Office system refers to planned procedure for accomplishment of predetermined objectives. It is referred to as a standard procedure laid down for achieving an objective given to the office and its personnel. Thus an office system is:
A standard procedure,
To accomplish a task,
Given to the office and its staff, and
For achieving the objectives set for.
Importance of office system
The importance of office system may be studied under the following heads:
Uninterrupted speedy office work.
Minimization of forgery and mistakes..
Facilitates training.
Effective control.
Essential characteristics of a sound office system
The following are the essential characteristics of a sound office system:
1. Simplicity.
2. Effectiveness.
3. Efficiency.
4. Co-ordination.
5. Flexibility..
6. Dependability.
7. Acceptability.

PLANNING THE OFFICE SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURE
To effectively manage the office it is necessary to prepare a plane for the office system and procedure. Office is seldom free from problems. However, the burden of these problems can be reduced by having a well planned system. Planning itself is a solution of many a problem. The following steps should be taken to have an effective planning of work and office system.
(d) Steps in planning an office system
Establishing the objectives. The objectives are predetermined. They are to be achieved. The office system naturally is planned to achieve the objectives. For this first the objectives are to be determined and defined. They are to be conveyed to the office planners who will then plane the office systems accordingly.
Defining system boundaries. First the planners have to define as to what their activities are and within what limits they are asked to plan. Once the limits of planners are defined it becomes easy to plane the system and go ahead accordingly.
Collecting data and other facts. The present has to be known. The past has to be examined. The future has to be planned. The present and past information, data and other facts are collected with a view what was there, what is there and what should be there. This should be is based on the data collected, analyzed and interpreted. This the planners have to do before they embark upon to evolve and give an office system.
Organizing and consolidating facts. Obviously the information data and facts are to be organized according to the requirement of the office. They are usually obtained in a manner in which it is not possible to use them unless organized properly and then consolidated. Thereafter they are classified, analyzed, tabulated and interpreted. These then go the planners for scrutiny, for decision and for setting a system which they think appropriate and according to the objectives which are to be achieved.
Interpreting the facts. This is the last step. But while drawing conclusions one has to examine the future and also cost and benefit has also to be analyzed. Then after only the conclusions can be drawn.
Evolving a system design. Here comes the time to evolve a system design after considering all the factors and future needs of the office as well as of the organization. The planners evolve such a system for approval and implementation.
Implementing the system. Naturally the system has to be implementation for which necessary facilities, including that of equipments etc. has to be provided and a control system has also to be established to check the duration etc.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Avoidance of delays and bottlenecks.
Elimination of wastes.
Speedy work.
Economy.
Reduced errors.
Effective control
Ease in training the staff.
Reduction in management’s work.
Office Manual
Instructions issued to employees for work, schedule, system, procedure etc. may either be ORAL or WRITTEN. Written instructions may take the shape of office manual. Office Emanuel may be referred to as the compilation of all written instructions in a volume for circulation among the staff. Office manual explains the relationship of the various departments and offices and includes rules and regulations affecting gall employees. Office manual may be defined as the guidelines and directions to employees incorporation therein all the details of relationships systems procedures and rules and regulations.
(i) Why office Manual?
The following are the reasons (OBJECTIVES) because of which it is advocated that every office should have office manual which may act as a guide as and when required:
For making the instructions authorized and standardized. The authentic and authorized issued be put in black and white. This makes them authentic and authorized. Since they are written and circulated every care is taken to standardize the same.
For avoiding the repetition of instructions.
For fixing the responsibility.
For effective control.
(ii) Types of office manuals
Generally a large office may have the following types of office manuals:
Policy manual
Organization manual.
Administrative practice manual.
Departmental practice manual.
Multipurpose manual.
OFFICE REPORTS
a) OBJECTS OF REPORT
After thorough study, collection of all relevant facts and information and proper scrutiny and analysis of a problem relating to past or present, submission of the conclusions supported by statements and other relevant data etc. is called a report, which offers suggestions for solution of the problem studied. From the above it is clear that:
A report is submission of the conclusions of the study of a problem relating to the past or present;
After full study of the problem;
After collecting all relevant facts and information relating to the problem;
After proper scrutiny and analysis of the facts and information collected for the purpose;
Offering suggestions for the solution of the problem studied;
Supported by statements and relevant data.
It may, therefore, be said that a report refers to presentation or submission of the conclusion of the study of a problem relating to the past or present and to offer suggestions for the solution of the problem studied.
Generally speaking a report is an analytical but descriptive presentation of a problem or event or procedure or position or a situation. Bringing to light something analytically is known as a report.
(e) Objects of Report
From the above discussions we may come to the conclusion that the following are three objectives of a report either asked or presented;
To have the full knowledge about a fact.
To make use of the report in future either for reference or for any other purpose.
To provide information to some one who is interested in gathering of such information or who wish to have the information for making use of these information in one way or the other.
(f) Kinds of Reports
The following are the two bases of classifying the reports-(1) according to function, and (2) according to formality.
According to functions the reports may be divided into three parts:
Informational reports.
Analytical reports
Research reports.
According to formality the reports may be divided into two parts:
Statutory reports
Non statutory or voluntary reports.
The above two may further be divided into two parts again, i.e. (i) routine reports and (ii) special reports.
Informational reports. These reports present facts about certain given activity in detail without any note or suggestions. Whatever is gathered is reported without giving any thing by way of either explanation or any suggestion. A vice-chancellor asking about the number of candidates appearing at a particular examination naturally seeks only information of the fact (candidates taking up the examination) of course without any comment. Generally such reports are of routine nature. Sometimes they may fall under statutory routine category. A company registrar asking for allotment return within the stipulate period is nothing but informational routine, falling under statutory but routine report.
Analytical reports. These reports contain facts along with analytical explanations offered by the reporter himself or may be asked for by the one who is seeking the report. Such reports contain the narration of facts, collected data and information, classified and tabulated data and also explanatory note followed by the conclusions arrived at or interpretations. A company chairman may ask for a report on falling trends in sale in a particular area. He will in this case be naturally interested in knowing all the details including that of opinion of any of the investigator.
Research reports. These reports are based on some research work conducted by either an individual or a group of individuals on a given problem. Indian oil company might have asked its research division to find some substitute for petrol, and if such a study is conducted then a report shall be submitted by the research division detailing its findings and then offering their own suggestions, including the conclusions at which the division has arrived at as to whether such a substitute is these and if it is there can the same be put to use with advantage and effectively. All details shall naturally be asked and has to be given. In fact such a report is the result of a research.
Statutory reports. These reports are to be presented according to the requirements of a particular law or a rule or a custom now has become a rule. The auditor reports to company registrar has to be submitted as per the requirements of country legal requirement. A return on compensation paid to factory workers during a period by a factory has to be submitted to competent authorities periodically. These reports are generally prepared in the prescribed form as the rules have prescribed.
Non statutory reports. These reports are not in the nature of legal requirements or rules wants, therefore, the reports are to be prepared and submitted. These reports are required to be prepared and submitted: (i) for the administrative and other conveniences,(ii) for taking decision in a matter (iii) for policy formulations, (iv) for projecting the future or (v) any thing alike so that efficient and smooth functioning maybe assured and proper and necessary decision may be taken with a view to see that every thing goes well and the objectives of the organization are achieved with assured success.
Routine reports. These reports are required to be prepared and submitted periodically on matters required by the organization so as to help the management of the organization to take decisions in the matters relating to day to day affairs. The main objectives of routine reports are to let the management know as to what is happening in the organization, what is its progress where the deviation is, what measures have been taken in solving the problems and what to do so that the organization may run smoothly and efficiently. Routine reports are generally brief. They only give the facts. No comments or explanations are usually offered in such reports. Generally forms are prescribed for preparation and submission of such reports.
Special reports. Such a type of report is specially required to be prepared and submitted on matters of special nature. Due to an accident a death of the foreman has occurred in a factory. The factory manager may ask for a detail report from the head foreman. Such a report is classified as special reports. These reports contain not only facts and details but they may contain suggestion, comments and explanations as well.
1) QUALITIES OF GOOD REPORTS
No norms can be laid down for drafting and submitting a report. How the report should be drafted, what should be its contents, in what language should it be presented are a few of the questions which can be answered only by the nature of report, king of report and the objective of the report. However a good report must have the following qualities:
The fulfillment of the objectives. The reports are always prepared with a view to fulfill the objectives for which they have been asked for and submitted. If one typewriter has been stolen from an office and a detailed report is asked regarding this theft. The report must not only report the facts etc. but it also fixes the responsibility for the theft, whish is the one aim of such a report besides other one or two aims specified.
Language. The language of the report should be simple and clear. It should be able to convey what actually it wants to without mincing the words and that too in clear and simple language. Difficult and technical words should as far as possible be avoided.
Complete and reliable. The report should be reliable. It should be above any question mark and at the same time it should be complete in all respects.
Logical and unbiased. The report should be fair. It should favour no one. It should bring out the fact without fear, favour and prejudice. This will make the report logical as well as unbiased.
Brief and relevant. Briefness is a quality which a report must adhere to. Everyone is busy today. No one likes lengthy narration. To the points relevant and brief narration with complete facts make a report not only good but worth preserving and taking note of.
In proper form. The report should be prepared and presented in the proper form. The form will naturally depend on nature and kind of report. However the report should always be divided into paragraphs. Whenever possible must be preceded by appropriate headings subheadings etc.
2) METHODS OF PREPARING A REPORT
The following are the steps (or methods) which one should take while embarking upon the preparation of a report on any matter that too of any kind:
Preliminary investigation. The individual who is to prepare a report must first investigate as to what facts he is analyze and examine, to whom the report is to be submitted, what are the objectives of the report and what should be the language of the report. Such investigation he has to carry out before stepping to write down the report.
Collection of facts, data and information which are required to fulfill the objectives for which the report if being prepared. This may be done either by preparing a questionnaire and then getting response from those who are concerned, or interview method may be applied for collecting the facts etc. secondary source may also be tackled to know the fact. In short the nature of report and the problem to be investigated may decide as to what should be the source how to collect and what to include in the report.
Examination, analysis and conclusions. After the collection etc. the facts so collected requires scrutiny analysis and then tabulated data are prepared for drawing conclusions. In fact it is these conclusions which form the basis of report to be prepared and submitted.
The contents. A report should have the following contents:
Heading and sub headings
List of contents
Introduction
Main body of the report divided into paragraphs dating numbered.
Recommendations
The arguments if any
Appendices getting all the supporting papers and documents on the basis of which the reports has been written and conclusions drawn.
Actual report writing and editing the same.
Submission to the appropriate authority.
3) REPORT WRITING
To investigate to collect, to examine and analyze and to arrange the found out facts are the steps which every report writer has to take. After all these steps the report preparer (writer) has to sit and write the report. Drafting of report is a step on which depends the success of the whole exercise. Therefore, it is necessary that the following care should be taken at the time of drafting or preparing the report for submission:
To verify that the objectives have been fulfilled so far as the preliminary work in connection with report collecting and writing is concerned.
(g) To provide suitable heading for the report
To introduce the report which must contain the problems on which report has been prepared the hypotheses of the investigation if there was any present situation and the primary concept in connection with the problem.
To see that the report is to the point logical and brief.
To see that it is written in simple understandable language.
To see that it is written in lucid style.
To ensure that the report is written in clear and affirmative language.
To ensure that nothing contained therein is against the requirement or not in conformity with the customs and practice.
To see tat before submission the report is edited and revised. The first draft should as far as possible not be submitted.
If such a care is taken the report prepared and submitted will save the purpose and fulfill the objectives. Drafting of report is not easy one. It is difficult in the sense that drafting expects that the report writer shall not do any thing contrary to the established practice and he will only give what he has found to be a fact. Beyond facts he will rather must not stretch himself.

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

 Financial Management for NGO’s – Y?
 What is financial management?
 What is financial control?
 Who is responsible for financial management?
 Principles of Financial Management
 Building Blocks of Financial Management
 The Tools of Financial Management
 System Design
 Two Interdependent Branches of Accounting
 Financial Information System
 Chart Of Accounts
 Cost Centers
 Cost Structures
 What is finance manual?
 Standard Forms
 What is Book Keeping?
 Basic Accounting Terms
 Accounting Equation
 General Ledger
 Trial Balance
 Financial Statements
 Adjusting entries
 Closing entries
 Cash VS Accrual Accounting
 Budgeting
 Audit

HR MANAGEMENT
1) Job analysis
2) Reasons for conducting job analysis
3) Types of job analysis information
4) When job analysis is performed
5) Uses of job analysis information
6) Steps in job analysis
7) Job analysis outcomes
a) Job description
b) Job specification
c) Job evaluation
8) Steps in job analysis
9) Job analysis methods
i) Methods of collecting job analysis information
(1) The interview
(2) Questionnaire
(3) Observation
(4) Participant diary / logs
ii) Quantitative job analysis techniques
10) Using multiple sources of information
11) Job analysis outcomes
a) Job description
b) Job specification
c) Job evaluation
12) Human resource planning (hrp):
A) Compensation incentives
b) Training programs
i) Different selection standards
ii) Sucession planning and development
(1) Recruitment
(2) Selection
(3) Socialization
(a) Recruitment:
(i) Goals of recruitment:
(ii) Constraints of recruitment process:
(iii) Image of the organization
(iv) attractiveness of the job
(v) Government influence
(vi) Labor market influence
(vii) Recruiting costs
(viii) Global issues
(4) Outsourcing
(5) Contingent workers
(6) Professional employer organization (employee leasing)
(7) Overtime
(8) Steps in the selection process
(a) Initial screening
(b) Application blank
(c) Pre-employment testing
(d) General intelligence tests
(e) Aptitude tests
(f) Personality and interest tests
(g) Achievement tests
(h) Honesty tests
(i) Interview
(i) Structured interview
(ii) Unstructured interview
(iii) Mixed interview
(j) Final selection decision
(k) Guidelines for conducting an interview
(i) Plan the interview.
(ii) Establish rapport.
(iii) Ask questions.
(iv) Close the interview.
(v) Review the interview.